Green World

2010-06-03T22:23:00.000-07:00

Acid Rain

2010-06-03T20:35:00.000-07:00

There are many forms of acid rain that are seen around the world. In parts of the world where there is wet weather, there is acid rain, acid snow, and acid fog. In parts of the world where there is dry weather, there is acid gas and acid dust. All of the lakes and streams in the world are normally slightly acidic. Heavy rainstorms or melting snow can cause the acidity in lakes and in streams to increase.

What effect does acid rain have on sea life?

Acid rain is very harmful to the environment. Acid rain damages everything over a period of time because it makes the living things in the environment die. Acid rain affects the life in the water as well as the life on land. It is almost worse in water than on land because the fish that are in the water need the water to breathe. When the water gets polluted, then the fish get sick and end up dying.

All rainwater contains some level of acidity. Acidity is measured by pH, which stands for potential of hydrogen. The pH scale measures the amount of acid in a substance. PH is measured on a scale from 0-14, with 7 being neutral. The lower the number is on the pH scale, the more acidic that substance is. Normal rainwater has a pH of 5.6. When the pH level of rainwater goes below 5.6, it is considered acid rain.

All of the sea life will die when the water that they swim in gets to be too acidic. For example, all fish will die when the water goes below a pH of 4.5. Most of the frogs and insects that live around the water will also die when the water reaches a pH of 4.5. With a pH of 5.5, all of the bottom-dwelling bacterial decomposers, animals that eat the remains of the food that other animals don’t want, will begin to die. When these decomposers die, they leave the un-decomposed food on the bottom of the water. This pollutes the water by making the water dirty for all of the fish to swim in. All fresh water shrimp die when there gets to be a pH of 6.0. Aquatic plants will grow the best when the water is a pH between 7.0 and 9.2. If acid rain gets to be more of a problem, then all of the sea life will eventually be gone.

Some of the lakes that were once acidic are recovering, but many more are not recovering. Of the 202 lakes that were chosen to be studied in the early 1980s; only 33% of them have become less acidic.

What effect does acid rain have on the forests of the world?

Trees are also harmed by acid rain. In Germany, the forests are believed to be dying because acid rain is harming them. Scientists say that acid rain damages the waxy outer coating that protects

the leaves. When this happens, it allows the acid to seep into the tree. Instead of water changing from a liquid to a gas inside the leaves, gas is taking the place of the water. This prevents the plant from taking in carbon dioxide to perform photosynthesis, and the plant will eventually die.

Acid rain, acid fog, and acid vapor also damage forests by

This is a picture of acid rain falling into a lake.

damaging the surface of the leaves and needles. This makes it harder for the trees to withstand the cold and will cause the tree to die. Acid rain also harms the soil that the trees are growing in by taking most of the valuable nutrients away from the soil. Acid rain also leaves a lot of aluminum in the soil, which can be harmful to the trees that grow there.

The atmosphere deposits a lot of toxic metals into the forests because acid rain contains metal. Some of these metals are lead, zinc, copper, chromium, and aluminum. When there is acid rain, the rain releases these metals. This is believed to stunt the growth of many trees and plants. This also stunts the growth of mosses, algae, nitrogen-fixing bacteria, and fungi that are needed to help the forest grow. Forests need these because they eat the harmful things that will kill the trees, such as bad bacteria. Acid rain hurts trees because they cannot grow any more.

What effect does acid rain have on the air, us, and our health?

Acid rain affects us in many different ways. One major way is our health. Breathing and lung problems in children and adults who have asthma and in children have been linked to acid air pollution. Everything that we eat, drink, and breathe has at one time come in contact with acid deposits. This could threaten our health by making us become sick. The following health problems occur each year in the U.S. and Canada due to acid rain:

	550 premature deaths
	1,520 emergency room visits
	210,070 asthma symptom days

As you see, if acid rain became a little less of a problem, then there would be many health problems that could be avoided.

What can acid rain do to non-living things?

Acid rain can also damage non-living things, such as buildings

and statues. It can decay building materials and paints. Worst

of all, it can damage non-replaceable buildings, statues, and sculptures that are part of our nation’s memories that we want to last for a very long time.

What is acid rain caused by?

Acid rain is mainly caused by these substances that are being released into the air:

	Carbon dioxide: Carbon dioxide is released by burning coal, oil, and natural gas. If you inhale carbon dioxide, then since it is toxic, it can cause you to have to breathe more than usual, unconsciousness, and other serious health problems.
	Carbon monoxide: Carbon monoxide is released by burning gasoline, oil, and wood. When carbon monoxide enters your body, it goes into the bloodstream. When this happens, it will slow down the delivery of oxygen to the rest of the body, causing dizziness, headaches, and fatigue.
	Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): CFCs are the chemicals that are used in industry, refrigeration, air conditioning systems, and consumer products. Whenever CFCs are released into the air, they reduce the stratospheric ozone layer. The stratospheric ozone layer protects Earth’s surface from the harmful rays of the sun.
	Hazardous air pollutants (HAPS): HAPS are released into the air by sources such as chemical plants, dry cleaners, printing plants, and motor vehicles (cars, trucks, buses, and planes). HAPS can cause serious health problems like cancer, birth defects, nervous system problems, and deaths that are all due to people accidentally letting them go into the air.
	Lead: Lead is released by house and car paint as well as the manufacturing of lead batteries, fishing lures, certain parts of bullets, some ceramic ware, water pipes, and fixtures. In young children, lead can cause nervous system damage and learning problems.
	Nitrogen oxides: Nitrogen Oxides are released into the air by burning fuels such as gasoline and coal. When nitrogen oxides combine with VOCs, they can cause breathing difficulty in people who have asthma, coughs in children, and general illness in your respiratory system.
	Ozone: Ozone is released by motor vehicles, industries, burning coal, gasoline, and other fossil fuels, and in the chemicals that are in hairspray and paints. When ozone is close to the ground (ground level ozone) it can cause chest pain, irritated respiratory tract, or persistent cough, can make you unable to take deep breaths, and can make you more likely to get lung infections.
	Particulate matter (PM): PM, little particles of pollution, is released by cars, trucks, and buses that are burning diesel fuel, fertilizers, pesticides, road construction, steel making, mining, and turning on fire places and wood stoves. When PMs mix with air particles and get breathed in by something, they get stuck in the lung tissue. There they can cause increased respiratory disease and lung damage.
	Sulfur dioxides: Sulfur dioxides are released by burning coal, paper production, and melting metal. Sulfur dioxide can harm vegetation, harm metals, and cause lung problems, which include breathing problems and permanent lung damage.
	Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): VOCs are released into the air by burning gasoline, wood, coal, or natural gas, solvents, paints, glues, and other products that are used at work or at home.

There are a lot of similarities in all of these pollutants. Most of the pollutants are from automobiles. Automobiles release harmful smoke into the air, which causes acid rain. Coal, oil, and gasoline are also some of the most common causes of all of the pollutants. If people reduce the amount of these things that they release into the air, then there will be less pollutants. Some of the most common health problems are breathing problems, nervous system problems, and lung problems.

Air Pollutant	% that mobile sources contribute to acid rain	% that other sources contribute to acid rain
Volatile organic compound	37%	63%
Nitrogen oxide	49%	51%
Carbon monoxide	81%	19%
Particulate matter	27%	73%

The table above shows that the biggest air pollutant that mobile sources contribute to acid rain is carbon monoxide. Of all of the carbon monoxide releases that contribute to acid rain, 81% of them come from mobile sources. The biggest other source is particulate matter, little particles of pollution that are released into the air by cars, trucks, and buses that are burning diesel fuel, fertilizers, pesticides, road construction, steel making, mining, and turning on fire places and wood stoves. 73% of the non-mobile sources that contribute to acid rain are caused by the release of particulate matter. The table above shows how much mobile and other sources of pollution can make acid rain more of a problem. Seeing that carbon monoxide and particulate matter are the leading sources of pollution, by cutting down on these, acid rain will not be as much of a problem.

What can you do?

There are many ways that people can stop pollution. One major way is to reduce the amount of trips that you take in your car. Another way that a lot of our pollution is caused is by creating electrical energy. When electricity is created, fuels are usually burned, and this causes the pollution, which causes acid rain. The generation of electric power produces more pollution than any other industry in the United States. Burning coal and other fossil fuels causes most of our pollution. This is why in some places around the world, acid rain is monitored very closely. In 1998, data shows that by using electricity, the pollution that comes with it was responsible for 67% of the sulfur dioxide emissions that caused acid rain that year. Every time that you turn on the lights, that causes the pollution that causes acid rain. Even doing little things that you may think don’t cause pollution sometimes really do. Some things that you can do to make acid rain less of a problem are:

In Your Home

	Only run the dishwasher with a full load
	Only run the washing machine with a full load
	Turn off the lights in empty rooms or when you will be away from home
	Turn off the hot water tank when you will be gone for a long period of time
	Turn down the heat at night and when you will not be home for the night
	Don’t use your air conditioner as much
	Install fluorescent light bulbs instead of incandescent light bulbs
	Try to reduce, reuse, and recycle as often as you can
	Try not to burn a fire as often as you usually do

In the yard

Keep the pool cover on the pool whenever you are not using it

Transportation

When you are going to work, you could walk, ride your bike, or take a bus

Car-pool to a place with someone else

For alternate fuels, try ethanol, propane, or natural gas

Take the train or a bus for long trips

Limit the amount of long trips you take in your car

Make sure that your vehicle’s air conditioning system isn’t leaking

Try not to overflow the gas tank

Make sure that you are traveling at high speeds only when you need to

This website allows you to test your knowledge on acid rain by correctly filling out their fun crossword puzzle on acid rain! Click on the website below to visit this neat website and prove to everyone that you know a lot about acid rain http://www.surfnetkids.com/games/acidrain-cw.htm

Acid rain hurts many things. Some things that are being hurt by acid rain are trees, animals, and most of all, sea life. People can help stop acid rain by not polluting the air. When the chemicals in the air turn into a gas and evaporate, they mix with the water vapor, and cause acid rain. Even kids can help prevent this pollution by using less electricity and using transportation that is friendly to the environment.

The Greenhouse Effect

2010-06-03T20:30:00.000-07:00

This section provides an overview of the earth's atmospheric "greenhouse effect" by briefly exploring the atmospheres of nearby planets and discussing our atmosphere's greenhouse gases. The general concepts found in this section include the following:

The earth's "greenhouse effect" is what makes this planet suitable for life as we know it.
The earth's atmosphere contains trace gases, some of which absorb heat. These gases (water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, and nitrous oxide) are referred to as "greenhouse gases."
Albedo has an important influence on the earth's temperature.
Greenhouses are structures designed to retain heat.
The heat-trapping ability of a greenhouse is influenced by a number of factors including the transparency of the greenhouse cover, color of the surfaces inside the greenhouse, and type of surfaces inside.

This section includes two classroom activities.

Introduction

The Goldilocks Principle can be summed up neatly as "Venus is too hot, Mars is too cold, and Earth is just right." The fact that Earth has an average surface temperature comfortably between the boiling point and freezing point of water, and thus is suitable for our sort of life, cannot be explained by simply suggesting that our planet orbits at just the right distance from the sun to absorb just the right amount of solar radiation. Our moderate temperatures are also the result of having just the right kind of atmosphere. A Venus-type atmosphere would produce hellish, Venus-like conditions on our planet; a Mars atmosphere would leave us shivering in a Martian-type deep freeze.

Instead, parts of our atmosphere act as an insulating blanket of just the right thickness, trapping sufficient solar energy to keep the global average temperature in a pleasant range. The Martian blanket is too thin, and the Venusian blanket is way too thick! The 'blanket' here is a collection of atmospheric gases called 'greenhouse gases' based on the idea that the gases also 'trap' heat like the glass walls of a greenhouse do.

These gases, mainly water vapor ( ), carbon dioxide (), methane (), and nitrous oxide (), all act as effective global insulators. To understand why, it's important to understand a few basic facts about solar radiation and the structure of atmospheric gases.

Solar Radiation

The sun radiates vast quantities of energy into space, across a wide spectrum of wavelengths.

Most of the radiant energy from the sun is concentrated in the visible and near-visible parts of the spectrum. The narrow band of visible light, between 400 and 700 nm, represents 43% of the total radiant energy emitted. Wavelengths shorter than the visible account for 7 to 8% of the total, but are extremely important because of their high energy per photon. The shorter the wavelength of light, the more energy it contains. Thus, ultraviolet light is very energetic (capable of breaking apart stable biological molecules and causing sunburn and skin cancers). The remaining 49 - 50% of the radiant energy is spread over the wavelengths longer than those of visible light. These lie in the near infrared range from 700 to 1000 nm; the thermal infrared, between 5 and 20 microns; and the far infrared regions. Various components of earth's atmosphere absorb ultraviolet and infrared solar radiation before it penetrates to the surface, but the atmosphere is quite transparent to visible light.

Absorbed by land, oceans, and vegetation at the surface, the visible light is transformed into heat and re-radiates in the form of invisible infrared radiation. If that was all there was to the story, then during the day earth would heat up, but at night, all the accumulated energy would radiate back into space and the planet's surface temperature would fall far below zero very rapidly. The reason this doesn't happen is that earth's atmosphere contains molecules that absorb the heat and re-radiate the heat in all directions. This reduces the heat radiated out to space. Called 'greenhouse gases' because they serve to hold heat in like the glass walls of a greenhouse, these molecules are responsible for the fact that the earth enjoys temperatures suitable for our active and complex biosphere.

Greenhouse Gases

Carbon dioxide () is one of the greenhouse gases. It consists of one carbon atom with an oxygen atom bonded to each side. When its atoms are bonded tightly together, the carbon dioxide molecule can absorb infrared radiation and the molecule starts to vibrate. Eventually, the vibrating molecule will emit the radiation again, and it will likely be absorbed by yet another greenhouse gas molecule. This absorption-emission-absorption cycle serves to keep the heat near the surface, effectively insulating the surface from the cold of space.

Carbon dioxide, water vapor (), methane (), nitorus oxide (), and a few other gases are greenhouse gases. They all are molecules composed of more than two component atoms, bound loosely enough together to be able to vibrate with the absorption of heat. The major components of the atmosphere ( and ) are two-atom molecules too tightly bound together to vibrate and thus they do not absorb heat and contribute to the greenhouse effect.

Greenhouse Effect

Atmospheric scientists first used the term 'greenhouse effect' in the early 1800s. At that time, it was used to describe the naturally occurring functions of trace gases in the atmosphere and did not have any negative connotations. It was not until the mid-1950s that the term greenhouse effect was coupled with concern over climate change. And in recent decades, we often hear about the greenhouse effect in somewhat negative terms. The negative concerns are related to the possible impacts of an enhanced greenhouse effect. This is covered in more detail in the Global Climate Change section of this Web site. It is important to remember that without the greenhouse effect, life on earth as we know it would not be possible.

While the earth's temperature is dependent upon the greenhouse-like action of the atmosphere, the amount of heating and cooling are strongly influenced by several factors just as greenhouses are affected by various factors.

In the atmospheric greenhouse effect, the type of surface that sunlight first encounters is the most important factor. Forests, grasslands, ocean surfaces, ice caps, deserts, and cities all absorb, reflect, and radiate radiation differently. Sunlight falling on a white glacier surface strongly reflects back into space, resulting in minimal heating of the surface and lower atmosphere. Sunlight falling on a dark desert soil is strongly absorbed, on the other hand, and contributes to significant heating of the surface and lower atmosphere. Cloud cover also affects greenhouse warming by both reducing the amount of solar radiation reaching the earth's surface and by reducing the amount of radiation energy emitted into space.

Scientists use the term albedo to define the percentage of solar energy reflected back by a surface. Understanding local, regional, and global albedo effects is critical to predicting global climate change.

Concluding Thoughts

The ability of certain trace gases to be relatively transparent to incoming visible light from the sun, yet opaque to the energy radiated from the earth is one of the best understood processes in the atmospheric sciences. This phenomenon, the greenhouse effect, is what makes the earth habitable for life. For students to truly understand the nature and importance of the greenhouse effect, they should understand the answers to these questions:

What is a greenhouse and how does it work?
How is the earth's atmosphere similar to a greenhouse?
What factors influence the function of a greenhouse?
What is albedo and how is it related to understanding global climate change?
What are the limitations in comparing the earth's atmosphere to a greenhouse?

Greenhouse

2010-06-03T20:21:00.000-07:00

Greenhouse

Firstly, we need to understand that our atmosphere is a layer surrounding the earth held in place by gravity and primarily made up of Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), with water and other gases making up the remainder. Scientists now realise that the proportion of these gases has increased significantly over a few hundred years. The real increase began around the time of the Industrial Revolution. This is when we began to burn fossil fuels (coal) in large quantities to power our steam engines.

These gases are termed 'green house gases' because during the day the earth absorbs heat from the sun, although much of this is radiated back out into space. The atmosphere surrounding our earth contains these gases, and acts like a blanket keeping some of the heat in. If there weren’t an atmospheric ‘blanket’ we would freeze during the night, like some of the other planets or our moon.

These gases are called greenhouse gases as they effectively make the blanket around our globe thicker, trapping more heat and turning the globe into a green house. (A green house is a structure that market gardeners use to grow vegetables in. It is covered in clear plastic or glass to let the sun light in, and traps the heat inside, increasing the temperature. Sometimes these are also referred to as 'hot houses').

This is where it gets a bit frightening! The fossil fuels we are burning in ever-increasing amounts contributes to higher concentrations of methane, carbon dioxide and nitrous dioxide, effectively turning up the heat and turning the globe into a veritable greenhouse

Effects

Here are some of the effects of the Earth becoming a 'green house'

Land and ocean temperatures rise
North and South Poles (Arctic and Antarctic) melt
Glaciers melt
Ocean currents change
Weather patterns change
Sea levels rise (due to oceans warming the water 'swells' and from increased water as polar regions melt

So What!

Well, I wish we could simply say that! However turning the globe into a green house has dire consequences for all of us. We already experiencing heatwavesassociated with land temperature increase and thousands of people will die through future heatwaves. (In the 2003 heatwaves in France over 20,000 people died).

Droughts will become more prolonged and be even more devastating than anything we have experienced. This is because higher temperatures evaporate water from the land, which will also give rise to more wildfires. Agriculture and food crops will be devastated in some regions and diseases like malaria and dengue fever will increase as conditions favourable to these diseases spread.

Higher ocean temperatures increase the power in cyclones and hurricanes,(stimulating more tornadoes ) and we will see a higher frequency of severe storms (like Hurricane Katrina)and associated flooding that will do extraordinary damage to infrastructure, and destroy houses, towns and villages. This is already driving up insurance costs.

Rising sea levels will displace millions of people, (already on some Islands people are being moved off due to rising seas) and the geography of the land will change dramatically, with millions needing to be relocated along with loss of buildings.

This site provides a lot of background on the effects of becoming a green house, but more importantly it shows that WE CAN DO SOMETHING.

50 B. E. S. T. Green Things to Do Now

2010-06-03T20:16:00.000-07:00

Select from this list those measures you find to be most affordable, and you can get off to an excellent start greening your lifestyle. Listed are approximate money savings and avoided environmental impacts based on CO².

Change your lightbulbs- use compact fluorescent bulbs (just 3 CFL bulbs will save 300 lbs of carbon dioxide; approx: $80.00 per year.)
Adjust your thermostat down, 2 in winter up 2 in summer. (Save 2000 lbs of carbon dioxide; approx. $98 to $200 a year.)
Check your waterheater; set it no higher than 120 degrees (Save 550 lbs of carbon dioxide and $30.)
Take shorter showers, avoid full tub baths (350 lbs of carbon dioxide and save $99 a year).
Install a low flow shower head; (700 lbs carbon dioxide; save $150 a year).
Buy home products locally. (big savings on transportation costs; helps the local economy rather than sending profits away to mega-corporations)
When you buy new appliances, try to buy Energy Star qualified models.
Plant a tree... trees suck up carbon dioxide save 2,000 lbs of carbon dioxide.
Insulate your water heater and save approx $40 a year.
Unplug unused electronics (up to 1000 lbs; save approx $256 a year.)
Turn off your computer when not in use.
Air dry your clothes.... and save approx. $75 a year.
Change out single pane to double pane windows (save 10,000 lbs of carbon dioxide; approx $436 a year.)
Switch to a tankless water heater.(save approx $390 a year)
Insulate your walls and ceilings (save 2,000 lbs; approx $245 a year).
Replace old appliances… save hundreds of lbs of carbon dioxide and hundreds of dollars.
Buy minimally packaged goods could reduce your garbage by 10%. (Save 1200 lbs of carbon dioxide a year and $1000.)
Fill the dishwasher before running (fight water waste and save approx $40 a year.)
Install a programmable thermostat. (700 lbs carbon dioxide; save $150 a year).
Clean or replace filters on your furnace and air conditioner… saving 350 lbs of carbon dioxide a year; about $70 savings).
Get a home energy audit… (save about 30% of energy bills; over 1,000 lbs of carbon dioxide a year depending on home size.)
Recycle…. (one of the top performing environmental options! save 2400 lbs of carbon dioxide a year.)
Recycle your organic waste (compost).
Buy recycled paper products.
Buy fresh instead of frozen… frozen food takes 10 times more energy to produce!
Eat less red meat… methane is the 2nd most significant greenhouse gas and cows are one of the greatest methane emitters. Their grassy diet and multiple stomachs cause them to produce methane, which they exhale when they breathe.
Support and buy at your local farmer’s market.
Don’t leave an empty roof rack on your car… this can increase fuel consumption and CO2 emissions by 10%.
Keep your tires inflated; improves gas mileage by 3%.
Plant a bamboo fence.
Use bamboo for floors, bowls, cutting boards, etc.
Unplug your electronics when you are not using them.
Install drip irrigation in your landscaping.
Use a lap top rather than a desktop it uses much less power.
Buy shade grown coffee, and gold reusable filters.
Install a ceiling fan to improve heat and cooling circulation.
Repair your leaky indoor and outdoor faucets.
Upgrade your toilet to a low flush model. (save about 1,200 gallons of water per year per toilet)
Collect rainwater and use it for gardening.
Buy low-VOC paint and donate the leftovers.
Wash clothes in cold water; use biodegradable detergents that are manufactured for this use.
Carpool when possible. Bike when possible. Walk when possible.
Plant flowers and shrubs that are Xeric (avoid need for irrigation).
Teach kids to be green by making them responsible for the recycling and match whatever they make in deposit.
Refrigerators eat up the most electricity in the household. Maximize efficiency by keeping the freezer at 0F. Replace with Energy Star models
When its time for a new car choose a more fuel efficient vehicle. Many new cars now offer greater than 30 MPG ratings.
Bring cloth bags to market. Avoid plastic shopping bags.
Join The Stop Global Warming Virtual March. This is a non-political effort to bring people concerned about global warming together in one place. Add your voice.
Fly less if possible or offset your travel by investing in renewable energy projects.
Share this list, do as many things as you are able to do, and talk to everyone about our environment. Let’s make a better world for current and future generations together, one household at a time.

Save Water 49 Ways: Indoors

2010-05-18T03:23:00.000-07:00

Save Water 49 Ways: Indoors

1)Never put water down the drain when there may be another use for it such as watering a plant or garden, or cleaning.

2)Verify that your home is leak-free, because many homes have hidden water leaks. Read your water meter before and after a two-hour period when no water is being used. If the meter does not read exactly the same, there is a leak.

3)Repair dripping faucets by replacing washers. If your faucet is dripping at the rate of one drop per second, you can expect to waste 2,700 gallons per year which will add to the cost of water and sewer utilities, or strain your septic system.

4)Check for toilet tank leaks by adding food coloring to the tank. If the toilet is leaking, color will appear within 30 minutes. Check the toilet for worn out, corroded or bent parts. Most replacement parts are inexpensive, readily available and easily installed. (Flush as soon as test is done, since food coloring may stain tank.)

5)Avoid flushing the toilet unnecessarily. Dispose of tissues, insects and other such waste in the trash rather than the toilet.

6)Take shorter showers. Replace you showerhead with an ultra-low-flow version. Some units are available that allow you to cut off the flow without adjusting the water temperature knobs.

7)Use the minimum amount of water needed for a bath by closing the drain first and filling the tub only 1/3 full. Stopper tub before turning water. The initial burst of cold water can be warmed by adding hot water later.

8)Don't let water run while shaving or washing your face. Brush your teeth first while waiting for water to get hot, then wash or shave after filling the basin.

9)Retrofit all wasteful household faucets by installing aerators with flow restrictors.
10)Operate automatic dishwashers and clothes washers only when they are fully loaded or properly set the water level for the size of load you are using.

11)When washing dishes by hand, fill one sink or basin with soapy water. Quickly rinse under a slow-moving stream from the faucet.

12)Store drinking water in the refrigerator rather than letting the tap run every time you want a cool glass of water.

13) Do not use running water to thaw meat or other frozen foods. Defrost food overnight in the refrigerator or by using the defrost setting on your microwave.

14) Kitchen sink disposals require lots of water to operate properly. Start a compost pile as an alternate method of disposing food waste instead of using a garbage disposal. Garbage disposals also can add 50% to the volume of solids in a septic tank which can lead to malfunctions and maintenance problems.

15)Consider installing an instant water heater on your kitchen sink so you don't have to let the water run while it heats up. This will reduce heating costs for your household.

16)Insulate your water pipes. You'll get hot water faster plus avoid wasting water while it heats up.
17)Never install a water-to-air heat pump or air-conditioning system. Air-to-air models are just as efficient and do not waste water.

18)Install water softening systems only when necessary. Save water and salt by running the minimum amount of regenerations necessary to maintain water softness. Turn softeners off while on vacation.

19)Check your pump. If you have a well at your home, listen to see if the pump kicks on and off while the water is not in use. If it does, you have a leak.

20)When adjusting water temperatures, instead of turning water flow up, try turning it down. If the water is too hot or cold, turn the offender down rather than increasing water flow to balance the temperatures.

21)If the toilet flush handle frequently sticks in the flush position, letting water run constantly, replace or adjust it.

22)Don't over water your lawn. As a general rule, lawns only need watering every 5 to 7 days in the summer and every 10 to 14 days in the winter. A hearty rain eliminates the need for watering for as long as two weeks. Plant it smart, Xeriscape. Xeriscape landscaping is a great way to design, install and maintain both your plantings and irrigation system that will save you time, money and water. For your free copy of "Plant it Smart," an easy-to-use guide to Xeriscape landscaping, contact your Water Management District.

23)Water lawns during the early morning hours when temperatures and wind speed are the lowest. This reduces losses from evaporation.

24)Don't water your street, driveway or sidewalk. Position your sprinklers so that your water lands on the lawn and shrubs ... not the paved areas.

25)Install sprinklers that are the most water-efficient for each use. Micro and drip irrigation and soaker hoses are examples of water-efficient methods of irrigation.

26)Regularly check sprinkler systems and timing devices to be sure they are operating properly. It is now the law that "anyone who purchases and installs an automatic lawn sprinkler system MUST install a rain sensor device or switch which will override the irrigation cycle of the sprinkler system when adequate rainfall has occurred." To retrofit your existing system, contact an irrigation professional for more information.

27)Raise the lawn mower blade to at least three inches. A lawn cut higher encourages grass roots to grow deeper, shades the root system and holds soil moisture better than a closely-clipped lawn.

28) Avoid over fertilizing your lawn. The application of fertilizers increases the need for water. Apply fertilizers which contain slow-release, water-insoluble forms of nitrogen.

29) Mulch to retain moisture in the soil. Mulching also helps to control weeds that compete with plants for water.

30) Plant native and/or drought-tolerant grasses, ground covers, shrubs and trees. Once established, they do not need to be watered as frequently and they usually will survive a dry period without any watering. Group plans together based on similar water needs.

31) Do not hose down your driveway or sidewalk. Use a broom to clean leaves and other debris from these areas. Using a hose to clean a driveway can waste hundreds of gallons of water.

32) Outfit your hose with a shut-off nozzle which can be adjusted down to fine spray so that water flows only as needed. When finished, "Turn it Off" at the faucet instead of at the nozzle to avoid leaks.

33) Use hose washers between spigots and water hoses to eliminate leaks.

34) Do not leave sprinklers or hoses unattended. Your garden hoses can pour out 600 gallons or more in only a few hours, so don't leave the sprinkler running all day. Use a kitchen timer to remind yourself to turn it off.

35) Check all hoses, connectors and spigots regularly.

36) Consider using a commercial car wash that recycles water. If you wash your own car, park on the grass to do so.

37) Avoid the installation of ornamental water features (such as fountains) unless the water is recycled. Locate where there are mineral losses due to evaporation and wind drift.

38) If you have a swimming pool, consider a new water-saving pool filter. A single back flushing with a traditional filter uses from l80 to 250 gallons or more of water.

39) Create an awareness of the need for water conservation among your children. Avoid the purchase of recreational water toys which require a constant stream of water.

40)Be aware of and follow all water conservation and water shortage rules and restrictions which may be in effect in your area.

41)Encourage your employer to promote water conservation at the workplace. Suggest that water conservation be put in the employee orientation manual and training program.

42) Patronize businesses which practice and promote water conservation.

43)Report all significant water losses (broken pipes, open hydrants, errant sprinklers, abandoned free-flowing wells, etc.) to the property owner, local authorities or your Water Management District.

44)Encourage your school system and local government to help develop and promote a water conservation ethic among children and adults.

45) Support projects that will lead to an increased use of reclaimed waste water for irrigation and other uses.

46) Support efforts and programs to create a concern for water conservation among tourists and visitors to our state. Make sure your visitors understand the need for, and benefits of, water conservation.

47) Encourage your friends and neighbors to be part of a water conscious community. Promote water conservation in community newsletters, on bulletin boards and by example.

48) Conserve water because it is the right thing to do. Don't waste water just because someone else is footing the bill such as when you are staying at a hotel.

49) Try to do one thing each day that will result in a savings of water. Don't worry if the savings is minimal. Every drop counts. And every person can make a difference. So tell your friends, neighbors and co-workers to "Turn it Off" and "Keep it Off".

The Miracle of Green Tea "Better to be deprived of food for three days, than tea for one." (Ancient Chinese Proverb)

2010-05-17T01:54:00.000-07:00

The Miracle of Green Tea

Is any other food or drink reported to have as many health benefits as green tea? The Chinese have known about the medicinal benefits of green tea since ancient times, using it to treat everything from headaches to depression. In her book Green Tea: The Natural Secret for a Healthier Life, Nadine Taylor states that green tea has been used as a medicine in China for at least 4,000 years.
Today, scientific research in both Asia and the west is providing hard evidence for the health benefits long associated with drinking green tea. For example, in 1994 the Journal of the National Cancer Institute published the results of an epidemiological study indicating that drinking green tea reduced the risk of esophageal cancer in Chinese men and women by nearly sixty percent. University of Purdue researchers recently concluded that a compound in green tea inhibits the growth of cancer cells. There is also research indicating that drinking green tea lowers total cholesterol levels, as well as improving the ratio of good (HDL) cholesterol to bad (LDL) cholesterol.
To sum up, here are just a few medical conditions in which drinking green tea is reputed to be helpful:

cancer
rheumatoid arthritis
high cholesterol levels
cariovascular disease
infection
impaired immune function

What makes green tea so special?

The secret of green tea lies in the fact it is rich in catechin polyphenols, particularly epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG). EGCG is a powerful anti-oxidant: besides inhibiting the growth of cancer cells, it kills cancer cells without harming healthy tissue. It has also been effective in lowering LDL cholesterol levels, and inhibiting the abnormal formation of blood clots. The latter takes on added importance when you consider that thrombosis (the formation of abnormal blood clots) is the leading cause of heart attacks and stroke.
Links are being made between the effects of drinking green tea and the "French Paradox." For years, researchers were puzzled by the fact that, despite consuming a diet rich in fat, the French have a lower incidence of heart disease than Americans. The answer was found to lie in red wine, which contains resveratrol, a polyphenol that limits the negative effects of smoking and a fatty diet. In a 1997 study, researchers from the University of Kansas determined that EGCG is twice as powerful as resveratrol, which may explain why the rate of heart disease among Japanese men is quite low, even though approximately seventy-five percent are smokers.
Why don't other Chinese teas have similar health-giving properties? Green, oolong, and black teas all come from the leaves of the Camellia sinensis plant. What sets green tea apart is the way it is processed. Green tea leaves are steamed, which prevents the EGCG compound from being oxidized. By contrast, black and oolong tea leaves are made from fermented leaves, which results in the EGCG being converted into other compounds that are not nearly as effective in preventing and fighting various diseases.

Other Benefits

New evidence is emerging that green tea can even help dieters. In November, 1999, the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition published the results of a study at the University of Geneva in Switzerland. Researchers found that men who were given a combination of caffeine and green tea extract burned more calories than those given only caffeine or a placebo.
Green tea can even help prevent tooth decay! Just as its bacteria-destroying abilities can help prevent food poisoning, it can also kill the bacteria that causes dental plaque. Meanwhile, skin preparations containing green tea - from deodorants to creams - are starting to appear on the market.
Harmful Effects?

To date, the only negative side effect reported from drinking green tea is insomnia due to the fact that it contains caffeine. However, green tea contains less caffeine than coffee: there are approximately thirty to sixty mg. of caffeine in six - eight ounces of tea, compared to over one-hundred mg. in eight ounces of coffee.

There has been much talk recently about the health benefits of green tea.
I’ve researched and discovered some sources about losing weight, diets and obesity. I used many medicines which are completely made up of chemicals. At the end, I turned back to the traditional treatment since I thought that those chemicals damage my liver. During my researches I discovered the benefits of green tea. Please do not confuse green tea with black tea which everyone drinks daily.

Ancient Chinese people knew the benefits of green tea for health. They have always used it for medical purposes. However, in Ancient China, it was used especially against the headaches and depression. Green tea has a great importance in China history. It is produced from the leaves of Camellia Sinensis by some special processes. Unlike black tea, it has little amount of caffeine which causes to insomnia, nausea and frequent urination.
This is the list of benefits of green tea which I’ve found during my research.
*It is used to treat multiple sclerosis.
*It is used for treatment and prevention of cancer.
*It is used to stop Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases.
*It is used to raise the metabolism and increase fat oxidation.
*It reduces the risk of heart diseases and heart attacks by reducing the risk of trombosis.
*It reduces the risk of esophageal cancer.
*Drinking green tea inhibits the growth of certain cancer cells, reduces the level of cholesterol in blood, improves the ratio of good cholesterol to bad cholesterol.
*It is used to treat rheumatoid arthritis and cardiovascular diseases
*It is used to treat impaired immune function.
*Some researches show that, drinking green tea regularly may help prevent tooth decay by killing the bacteria which causes the dental plaque.

Fifty Green Tips for Earth Day and Beyond

2010-05-17T01:34:00.000-07:00

1. Lower your thermostat. Buy a programmable thermostat.

2. Reuse your water bottle. Avoid buying bottled water. In fact, reuse everything at least once, especially plastics.

3. Check out your bathroom. Use low-flow faucets, showerheads, and toilets.

4. Start a compost in your back yard or on your rooftop.

5. Buy foods locally. Check out Eat Local Challenge and FoodRoutes to get started. Buy locally made products and locally produced services.

6. Buy in season.

7. Buy compact fluorescent light bulbs. You'll find more on energy-efficient products and practices at Energy Star.

8. Turn off lights and electronics when you leave the room. Unplug your cell phone charger from the wall when not using it. Turn off energy strips and surge protectors when not in use (especially overnight).

9. Recycle your newspapers.

10. Car pool. Connect with other commuters at eRideShare.

11. Consider a car sharing service like Zipcar.

12. Ride a bike.

13. Walk, jog, or run.

14. Go to your local library instead of buying new books.

15. At holidays and birthdays, give your family and friends the gift of saving the earth. Donate to their favorite environmental group, foundation, or organization.

16. Get off junk mail lists. GreenDimes can get you started. They’ll even plant a tree for you!

17. Buy products that use recyclable materials whenever possible.

18. If you use plastic grocery bags, recycle them for doggie poop bags or for small trashcan liners.

19. Bring your own bags to the grocery store. Given a choice between plastic and paper, opt for paper.

20. Buy locally. Find farmers’ markets, family farms, and other sources of sustainably grown food near you at LocalHarvest.

21. Consider organic cleaning products like vinegar, borax, and baking soda.

22. If you have a baby, consider using cloth diapers. To sign up for a diaper service to do the dirty work, check out the National Association of Diaper Services.

23. Consider buying a fuel-efficient car or a hybrid.

24. Landscape with native plants. Check out the article on the EPA website.

25. Opt into a clean energy program. Check out the Green Power Network at the US Department of Energy.

26. Go paperless. Consider reading your newspaper and magazine subscriptions online. Switch to electronic banking and credit card payment, too.

27. Teach kids about the environment.

28. Take your batteries to a recycling center. Earth 911 gives you the scoop.

29. Turn your car off if you’re going to be idle for more than one minute.

30. Do full loads of laundry and set the rinse cycle to “cold.”

31. Recycle. If you’re not at home, take the extra steps, (literally), to find that recycling can.

32. Reuse. Plastic food containers make good crayon and marker holders. Use padded envelops more than once. Buy your toddler or preschooler’s clothes from a thrift shop and give away those that don’t fit to friends. Goodwill or the Salvation Army can help.

33. Limit the length of your showers. Even better, take a “navy shower,” shutting off the water while soaping up and shampooing.

34. Don’t run the water when brushing your teeth. Learn about water scarcity.

35. Wash towels after several uses.

36. Purchase one case of water and provide clean water to 24 people (for over twenty years).

37. Give away your goods and find new ones at FreeCycle.

38. Recycle your technology. Dell, Hewlett Packard, Apple, and IBM, among others, offer recycling programs.

39. Go zero! Log on to the Conservation Fund’s Carbon Zero Calculator and in less than five minutes, you can measure and then offset your carbon dioxide emissions by planting trees.

40. Put your money where your mouth is—invest in green investments. Web sites like Co-op America's National Green Pages™ can help.

41. Learn about threats to ocean life and help Greenpeace take action.

42. Whenever you can, try using green cleaning products. Check out Cheap, Clean, and Green.

43. Find your local watershed and learn how to protect it.

44. Build a greener home.

45. Opt for eco-friendly and holistic health products.

46. Good to the last drop. Switch to fair trade coffee.

47. Go paperless at work. Distribute company information and post company material online.

48. Eliminate junk mail at work. For no fee, the EcoLogical Mail Coalition will eliminate the junk that former employees receive at work.

49. Plant a forest and feed a family while you’re at it.

50. Shop smart. Choose eco-smart products.

Approaches to Green Computing

2010-05-17T01:18:00.000-07:00

Virtualization

Computer virtualization refers to the abstraction of computer resources, such as the process of running two or more logical computer systems on one set of physical hardware. The concept originated with the IBM mainframe operating systems of the 1960s, but was commercialized for x86-compatible computers only in the 1990s. With virtualization, a system administrator could combine several physical systems into virtual machines on one single, powerful system, thereby unplugging the original hardware and reducing power and cooling consumption. Several commercial companies and open-source projects now offer software packages to enable a transition to virtual computing. Intel Corporation and AMD have also built proprietary virtualization enhancements to the x86 instruction set into each of their CPU product lines, in order to facilitate virtualized computing.

Terminal Servers

Terminal servers have also been used in green computing methods. Terminal Services for Windows and the Aqua Connect Terminal Server for Mac, both deliver operating systems to end users. Using this method, users terminal in to a central server. All of the computing is done at the server level but the end user experiences the operating system. There has been an increase in using terminal services with thin clients to create virtual labs. Thin clients use up to 1/8 the amount of energy of a normal workstation. Using thin clients with a terminal server delivers the Windows or Mac operating system to end users while also decreasing energy costs and consumption.

Power Management

The Advanced Configuration and Power Interface (ACPI), an open industry standard, allows an operating system to directly control the power saving aspects of its underlying hardware. This allows a system to automatically turn off components such as monitors and hard drives after set periods of inactivity. In addition, a system may hibernate, where most components (including the CPU and the system RAM) are turned off. ACPI is a successor to an earlier Intel-Microsoft standard called Advanced Power Management, which allows a computer's BIOS to control power management functions.
Some programs allow the user to manually adjust the voltages supplied to the CPU, which reduces both the amount of heat produced and electricity consumed. This process is called undervolting. Some CPUs can automatically undervolt the processor depending on the workload; this technology is called "SpeedStep" on Intel processors, "PowerNow!"/"Cool'n'Quiet" on AMD chips, LongHaul on VIA CPUs, and LongRun with Transmeta processors.

Power Supply

Desktop computer power supplies (PSUs) are generally 70–75% efficient, dissipating the remaining energy as heat. An industry initiative called 80 PLUS certifies PSUs that are at least 80% efficient; typically these models are drop-in replacements for older, less efficient PSUs of the same form factor. As of July 20, 2007, all new Energy Star 4.0-certified desktop PSUs must be at least 80% efficient.

Storage

Smaller form factor (e.g. 2.5 inch) hard disk drives often consume less power per gigabyte than physically larger drives. Unlike hard disk drives, solid-state drives store data in flash memory or DRAM. With no moving parts, power consumption may be reduced somewhat for low capacity flash based devices. Even at modest sizes, DRAM based SSDs may use more power than hard disks, (e.g., 4GB i-RAM uses more power and space than laptop drives). Flash based drives are generally slower for writing than hard disks.
As hard drive prices have fallen, storage farms have tended to increase in capacity to make more data available online. This includes archival and backup data that would formerly have been saved on tape or other offline storage. The increase in online storage has increased power consumption. Reducing the power consumed by large storage arrays, while still providing the benefits of online storage, is a subject of ongoing research.

Video Card

A fast GPU may be the largest power consumer in a computer. Energy efficient display options include:
No video card - use a shared terminal, shared thin client, or desktop sharing software if display required.
Use motherboard video output - typically low 3D performance and low power.
Reuse an older video card that uses little power; many do not require heatsinks or fans. Select a GPU based on average wattage or performance per watt.

Display

LCD monitors typically use a cold-cathode fluorescent bulb to provide light for the display. Some newer displays use an array of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) in place of the fluorescent bulb, which reduces the amount of electricity used by the display.

Operating System Issues

Microsoft has been heavily criticized for producing operating systems that, out of the box, are not energy efficient. Due to Microsoft's dominance of the huge desktop operating system market this omission may have resulted in more energy waste than any other initiative by other vendors. Microsoft claim to have improved this in Vista. This claim is disputed in the community. This problem has been compounded because Windows versions before Vista did not allow power management features to be configured centrally by a system administrator. This has meant that most organizations have been unable to improve this situation.
Again, Microsoft Windows Vista has improved this by adding basic central power management configuration. The basic support offered has been unpopular with system administrators who want to change policy to meet changing user requirements or schedules. Several software products have been developed to fill this gap.

Materials Recycling

Computer systems that have outlived their particular function can be repurposed, or donated to various charities and non-profit organizations. However, many charities have recently imposed minimum system requirements for donated equipment. Additionally, parts from outdated systems may be salvaged and recycled through certain retail outlets and municipal or private recycling centers.Recycling computing equipment can keep harmful materials such as lead, mercury, and chromium out of landfills, but often computers gathered through recycling drives are shipped to developing countries where environmental standards are less strict than in North America and Europe. The Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition estimates that 80% of the post-consumer e-waste collected for recycling is shipped abroad to countries such as China, India, and Pakistan.
Computing supplies, such as printer cartridges, paper, and batteries may be recycled as well.

Telecommuting

Teleconferencing and telepresence technologies are often implemented in green computing initiatives. The advantages are many; increased worker satisfaction, reduction of greenhouse gas emissions related to travel, and increased profit margins as a result of lower overhead costs for office space, heat, lighting, etc. The savings are significant; the average annual energy consumption for U.S. office buildings is over 23 kilowatt hours per square foot, with heat, air conditioning and lighting accounting for 70% of all energy consumed. Other related initiatives, such as hotelling, reduce the square footage per employee as workers reserve space only when they need it. Many types of jobs -- sales, consulting, and field service -- integrate well with this technique.
Voice over IP (VoIP) reduces the telephony wiring infrastructure by sharing the existing Ethernet copper. VoIP and phone extension mobility also made hot desking and more practical.

Top 10 Ways To Green Your Office.

2010-02-10T09:22:00.000-08:00

Top 10 Ways TO Green Your Office

In my previous life working in an office building, I saw first hand the amount of paper and waste thrown out every day. Once used paper, coffee cups, toner cartridges, shipping boxes…you name it, we threw it out. Los Angeles is notorious for not having a comprehensive recycling program, with most apartments not having recycling bins AT ALL. People are told to bring their recyclables to drop off points, which not too many people do. But back to offices, which are kind of the same here in L.A.. The building I used to work in had no recycling program at all…everything went in the trash. It was a huge building, and at the end of every day the bins would be full. I talked to the building manager and tried to implement a recycling program, but they wanted nothing to do with it. I figured with my experience trying to deal with them, I would put together a small list of things you can do to try to “green” your office building.

1. Start small.By talking with the boss of your company, or the person in charge of such things, maybe it would be possible to at least get recycling bins put around the office to collect all the paper scraps and aluminum or glass containers in the kitchen. If your city does not have recycling pick-up, there are companies out there that specialize in setting up programs where they come to your office on a weekly basis to pick up any and all recycling.

2. Try to make it office policy that everyone at least turns off their monitors, if not their computers, before they head out for the day. I know in some offices it is not possible to turn off the computers for network reasons, but there is no reason the monitor has to be on. When I was ready to leave for the day, I used to walk around turning off all the computer monitors. People wondered for years how their monitors were turned off at night and I just kept my mouth shut. Seems having to press the “on” button in the morning was really a bother.

3. A lot of companies provide bottled water to their employees, but often this is in individual bottles that are kept in the refrigerator. Try to talk to the person in charge of buying food and supplies for the office to see if it would be possible to put in a water cooler and some plastic or glass cups that everyone can use. That way, paper cups and plastic water bottles do not have to be put in the trash or recycling bin every day.

4. Make sure that the paper that is used in copiers and printers is 100% post consumer recycled paper.All the big box stores like Staples and Office Max carry this, and there is absolutely no reason that paper should not be of the recycled kind. Offices use fifteen million sheets of office paper every FIVE minutes, so imagine how many trees are being destroyed so you can print out your TPS reports. (If you do not know what a TPS report is, you missed an incredible movie)

5. If possible, change habits in the kitchen.Try to get the company to buy real forks and knives and stop buying plastic ones that are only used once. This can save a landfill from getting filled up with even more plastic then it already is.

6. Sure, it might be a difficult sell, but see if your company would be interested in participating in a mass transit program.Most transit lines in the U.S. offer discounts and other perks to companies that subsidize or pay for their employees to take the bus or subway. Think of the saving not only on your wallet, but also the air we all breathe.

7. Contact the people you lease (yes, most companies lease, they do not own) your copiers and fax machines from to see if they have models that will print on both sides of the paper.Most of them will have them, and presenting the idea to your boss as a money saver and not an environmental move would probably be more influential.

8. If you happen to work in the shipping department, reuse those boxes!Just because it says something on the side of the box does not mean that it is no good. Sure, you might not want to send something to a paying customer in a box with some other company’s name on the side, but there are plenty of times you can reuse boxes no matter what they say on the side!

9. When the need for a meeting comes up that entails travel outside your area, think about if you could accomplish the same goals by teleconferencing.With today’s technology, you can instant message, VOIP, create forums or discussion groups, and even have face to face meetings via web cams. If you don’t NEED to be there in person, save the company some money and the environment some damage by not traveling.

10. If you have windows in your office, be sure to use the free light that is outside!
Turn off those overhead lights and work by natural light; its better for your eyes and the environment.

Going Green at Work

2010-02-10T09:13:00.000-08:00

Going Green at Work: Top Tips

More Work, Less Energy
For many people, a computer is the central tool at work. Optimizing the energy settings for computers and other devices can be more than a modest energy saver. Set computers to energy-saving settings and make sure to shut them down when you leave for the day (“standby” settings will continue to draw power even when not in use). By plugging hardware into a power strip with an on/off switch (or a smart power strip), the whole desktop setup can be turned off at once (make sure to power down inkjet printers before killing the power—they need to seal their cartridges). Printers, scanners, and other peripherals that are only used occasionally can be unplugged until they’re needed. And of course, turn off lights in spaces that are unoccupied.
Digitize
It does seem a bit strange that in the “digital age” we still consume enormous amounts of mashed up, bleached tree pulp, most of which gets used once or twice and then tossed or recycled (“downcycled,” as McDonough and Braungart would call it). The greenest paper is no paper at all, so keep things digital and dematerialized whenever possible. The more you do online, the less you need paper. Keep files on computers instead of in file cabinets (this also makes it easier to make offsite backup copies or take them with you when you move to a new office). Review documents onscreen rather than printing them out. Send emails instead of paper letters. New software like Greenprint helps eliminate blank pages from documents before printing and can also convert to PDF for paperless document sharing.
Don’t Be a Paper Pusher
When buying printer paper, look for recycled paper with a high percentage of post-consumer content and the minimum of chlorine bleaching. Even recycled paper gobbles up a great deal of energy, water, and chemical resources in its processing (toxic pulp slurry is the paper recycling industry’s dirty secret). When using the real stuff, print on both sides of the page when appropriate and use misprints as notepaper. Try to choose printers and photocopiers that do double-sided printing. If your office ships packages, reuse boxes and use shredded waste paper as packing material.
Greening the Commute
American workers spend an average of 47 hours per year commuting through rush hour traffic. This adds up to 3.7 billion hours and 23 billion gallons of gas wasted in traffic each year. We can ease some of this strain by carpooling, taking public transit, biking, walking, or a creative combination thereof. If there’s no good way to phase out your car, consider getting a hybrid, electric vehicle, motorcycle, scooter, or using a car sharing service like Flexcar or Zipcar. See How to Green Your Car for more depth on the subject. Some employers are even giving a bonus to bike and carpool commuters and special perks to hybrid drivers. For those who think bike riding is for kids and tattooed couriers, consider a high-tech folding bike or an electrically assisted one (see below for more).
Green Sleeves
You might be amazed how sharp work clothes from thrift stores can look. If you buy new, get clothes made with organic or recycled fibers. Avoid clothes that need to be dry cleaned, and if they so demand it, seek out your local "green" dry cleaner. See How to Go Green: Wardrobe for more tactics on greening those work duds.
Work From Home
Instant messaging, video conferencing, and other innovative workflow tools make effective telecommuting a reality. If you can telecommute, hold phone conferences, take online classes, or otherwise work from home, give it a try. It'll save you the time you would have spent on the trip as well as sparing the air. As a bonus, you get to work in your pajamas. Telecommuting works for 44 million Americans (not to mention the TreeHugger staff). Also, consider the possibility of working four ten-hour days instead of five eight-hour days (a consolidated workweek), cutting the energy and time spent on commuting by 20% and giving you some lovely three-day weekends.
Use Green Materials
Some paper use can't be avoided, so use recycled paper and envelopes that have been processed and colored using eco-friendly methods. Pens and pencils can also be made of recycled materials, and refillable pens and markers are preferable to disposable ones. Use biodegradable soaps and recycled paper or cloth towels in the bathroom and kitchen, and provide biodegradable cleaners for the custodial staff. Buy in bulk so that shipping and packaging waste are reduced, and reuse the shipping boxes. Recycling printer cartridges is often free, and recycled replacements are cheaper than new ones.
Redesign the Workspace
Greening the space in which you work has almost limitless possibilities. Start with good furniture, good lighting, and good air. Furniture can be manufactured from recycled materials as well as recyclable. Herman-Miller and Steelcase are two groundbreaking companies that have adopted the Cradle-to-Cradle protocol for many of their office chairs. Incandescent bulbs can be replaced with compact fluorescents and there is an ever-growing selection of high-end LED desk lamps that use miniscule amounts of energy (see How to Green Your Lighting). Not only is natural daylight a free source of lighting for the office, it has been proven to improve worker productivity and satisfaction (as well as boost sales in retail settings). Workspace air quality is also crucial. Good ventilation and low-VOC paints and materials (such as furniture and carpet) will keep employees healthy (look for How to Green Your Furniture coming soon).
Lunch Time
Bringing lunch to work in reusable containers is likely the greenest (and healthiest) way to eat at work. Getting delivery and takeout almost inevitably ends with a miniature mountain of packaging waste. But if you do order delivery, join coworkers in placing a large order (more efficient than many separate ones). Also, bring in a reusable plate, utensils, and napkins. If you do go out for lunch, try biking or walking instead of driving.
Get Others in on the Act
Share these tips with your colleagues. Ask your boss to purchase carbon offsets for corporate travel by car and plane. Arrange an office carpool or group bike commute. Trade shifts and job duties so that you can work four long days instead of five short ones. Ask the office manager to get fair trade coffee for the break room and make sure everyone has a small recycling bin so that recycling is just as easy as throwing paper away. Ask everyone to bring in a mug or glass from home and keep some handy for visitors so that you reduce or eliminate use of paper cups.

How to "Green" Your Office: Create an Eco-Friendly Office

2010-02-10T09:10:00.000-08:00

How to "Green" Your Office: Create an Eco-Friendly Office

Remember the days when green was just a color and notebooks were 3-ring binders? Today, "green" isn't just a color -- it means "earth-friendly" -- and "notebooks" are among the most energy efficient computers available. Whether you run a home office or a 1,000-employee company, here are some tips to "green" your office.

Green Your PC

Always turn off your monitor and computer when not in use.
If you need a new computer, consider a notebook or one of the new breed of energy-efficient desktops. Several PCs on the market meet the Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) new Energy Star program, which requires all federal PC procurements to use no more than 30 watts of power when inactive (notebooks already do this to conserve battery power).
Don't throw away your old computer -- recycle the parts, give it away, trade it in at a used computer store toward the purchase of a new one, donate it to a school, church, or charity.
To increase your own ecological awareness and network with others about issues of concern to you, subscribe to such online services as Econet, Bitnet, CompuServe, America Online, and the WELL. For more information, see Don Rittner's book Ecolinking (Peachpit Press).
For more information on computers, read Steve Anzovin's The Green PC: Making Choices that Make a Difference (McGraw-Hill). Also, be sure to read the American Council for an Energy- Efficient Economy's Guide to Energy-Efficient Office Equipment to learn more about green alternatives.

Office Supplies

Try environmentally friendly pencils, such as those made from recycled paper, available from Earth Share (800-875-3863). Alternatives for correction fluid, pens, and other supplies are found in many environmental product guides as well as In Business: The Magazine for Environmental Entrepreneuring (Emmaus, PA).
Use recycled fiber padded envelopes, popcorn, and shredded newspaper for shipping. Some vendors will take back bubble wrap or whatever packing materials that you cannot use. Ask them.
Choose office furniture that is nontoxic and that is used or made from sustainably harvested wood or other renewable resources.
Use mugs rather than styrofoam cups.

Paper: What's Hot, What's Not

Switch to using the "greenest" paper available. Made of 100% post-consumer waste, recycled, never-bleached paper, it is attractive enough for professional use and is becoming increasingly available.
Try plain paper fax machines rather than those that rely on non-recyclable, chemically treated thermal paper.
Use electronic mail rather than paper whenever possible. "E-Mail" is faster, cheaper, and less resource intensive than overnight mail.
Keep a scrap box for all of your junk mail/papers with one blank side. You'll never need to buy scratch paper again.
Use both sides of paper before you recycle it, and be sure that your photocopying is two-sided when possible.

Recycle -- Everything

Recycle everything possible. Toner cartridges, aluminum, glass, all types of paper, cardboard, telephone books, even food. Some companies make compost from their lunch scraps and use it for their plants.

The Safe Office

Beware of electro-magnetic fields (EMFs) and radiation coming from computers, cellular phones, and other equipment. The EPA has reported on the dangers of EMFs, which are thought to emit fields high enough to cause cancer for those within very close proximity to machines and appliances.
Avoid materials that are highly toxic, heavily packaged, not recycled, or not recyclable. Cleansers and other everyday materials (insulation, paints, plastics, glues, carpets, fabrics) often contain dangerous chemicals. Alternatives to harsh chemical cleansers (carpet, window, wall, etc.) may be found in environmental directories such as Enviro Clean: Sourcebook of Environmentally Responsible Cleaning Products (800-466-1425) or in many natural food stores.

Lighting

Retro-fit lights with fixtures using much less energy. Generally, energy-efficient lighting upgrades increase lighting quality and yield 20% to 30% annual rates of return.
Turn off lights whenever you leave the room. According to the EPA's Green Lights Program, the common belief that turning a light off and on wastes energy is a myth.

Transportation

Walk, bike, or take public transportation whenever possible. If you need to take a taxi, look for an innovative firm such as Clean Air Cab Company, a Washington D.C.-based business whose cabs run on natural gas.

Natural Options for Your Garden

2010-02-10T09:07:00.000-08:00

Natural Options for Your Garden

If you were born in the last 50 years, it may be hard to imagine food produced completely without the use of pesticides. In fact, it is tempting to think that these insect and weed eliminators are a necessary part of creating those big, bountiful berries, or luscious, leafy greens.

However, while farmers have been using chemicals found in their environment for thousands of years to control pests — the Greeks and Romans used such materials as ashes and sulfur — man-made pesticides have only been used widely in modern agriculture since the 1940s.

Man-made pesticides may keep pests out of your garden, but they also offer two major environmental problems:

They are harmful to our water. When rains come, they are washed into nearby rivers and lakes. Our water treatment systems are not designed to remove pesticides.
Pesticides are not species-specific. Depending on the type, they can be toxic to all species (including humans), and may be harming predatory species that could have helped eliminate your pests in the first place.

One way to help prevent this is to properly dispose of your leftover pesticides. You can find a drop-off location for pesticides using Earth911.

Another option is to consider farming without the use of pesticides. Here are a few tips:

Maintain Healthy Plants

Young and sickly plants are most susceptible to a pest infestation, and unwanted insects are often a harbinger of an unhealthy plant and less than ideal growing conditions. By keeping soil healthy through crop rotation, sufficient space and ventilation, and the use of such natural fertilizers as organic compost, a healthy environment for plants can easily be maintained.

Crop Rotation

Often, pests will feed on one type of plant but not on another. Growing different types of plants in the same space breaks the lifecycle of these types of pests. It will also keep your soil fertile because growing the same crop throughout will deplete your soil of specific nutrients.

Symbiotic Plants and Animals

Mutually beneficial flowers and herbs (such as chrysanthemums) act as natural pest repellents when planted among other flowers and crops.

In addition, the introduction of certain types of insects is another effective form of pest control. For example, the introduction of ladybugs effectively controls aphid populations.

Physical Barriers

Whether in your home or garden, pests need a point of entry. Eliminating this opportunity will discourage pests from making their home in yours.

Biopesticides

These deterrents are naturally occurring and can be made from animals, plants, bacteria and minerals. However, precautions should still be used with these types of pesticides.

Properly Dispose of Yard Waste

Yard and grass clippings can reach our local waterways by washing into storm drains. Keep green waste out of storm drains. Try grasscycling, composting or participating in your local green waste program.

Grasscycling is the practice of leaving clippings on the lawn when mowing. The clippings quickly decompose, returning nutrients to the soil. Some grasscycling benefits:

It makes caring for your lawn easier, and will not cause thatch
You can reduce mowing time by as much as 50 percent
Leaving clippings on the lawn also reduces the lawn’s water loss and need for fertilizer.

To grasscycle, it is best to cut grass when the surface is dry (no drops of moisture on the grass), and to keep mower blades sharp. Follow the “1/3 rule”: Mow the lawn often enough so that no more than 1/3 of the length of the grass blade is removed in any one mowing.

Proper mowing will produce short clippings that will not cover up the grass surface. You may have to cut the lawn more frequently, or double cut, when the lawn is growing quickly.

Backyard composting is the process of allowing nature to break down your green waste. When you mix your grass clippings, weeds, trimmings and water in a bin, beneficial insects and microorganisms decompose the mixture into finished compost.

You may have finished compost in as early as six weeks. Finished compost can be placed over the soil as mulch, or mixed into the soil as a wonderful soil amendment.

Metal Recycling

2010-02-10T09:04:00.000-08:00

Metal Recycling

Scrap metal makes up one of the two largest exports that the U.S. sends to China. In fact, according to the Institute of Scrap Recycling Industries (ISRI) there are “150 million metric tons of scrap materials recycled annually including: 81.6 million tons of iron and steel, 5 million tons of aluminum, 1.8 million tons of copper and 2 million tons of stainless steel.” In addition to these metals, others metals can also be recycled including:

Brass and Bronze
Zinc
Magnesium
Tin
Lead

The amount of energy saved in using recycled metals is extensive. The ISRI reports an energy use reduction of 95 percent for aluminum, 85 percent for copper and 74 percent for iron and steel. As far as conservation goes, using recycled goods for metal products can make a big impact. Steel conserves 2500 lbs. of iron ore, 1400 lbs. of coal and 120 lbs. of limestone, while aluminum conserves up to 8 tons bauxite ore and 14 megawatt hours of electricity.

How to Recycle Metal

Scrap metal includes ferrous metals (iron and steel) and nonferrous materials (aluminum, copper, tin, brass). Many of our home appliances are made of metals. This includes our washers & dryers, refrigerators, ovens & stoves and water heaters. Waste from unwanted appliances can be categorized in two main types: refrigerants (Freon) and non-refrigerants.

The Process

The recycling process for metal is similar to those of other materials. It is best described in four stages:

Collection
Processing
Shredding
Selling

After collection and proper sorting, the scrap is compacted. It is then sold to minimills, which process them to steel. According to RecycleMetal.org, “processing scrap metal to steel instead of virgin ore require about 74 percent less energy.”

Tips for Recycling

Have the delivery company for your new appliance, take the old with them. These companies can either recycle the unit or properly dispose of it
Have a professional disassemble your appliance and take the appropriate materials to recyclers in your area
If the appliance is still working, sell it on online, donate it to ta charity or give it to a friend

Facts About Glass Recycling

2010-02-10T09:01:00.000-08:00

Facts About Glass Recycling

Glass containers are 100 percent recyclable, can be recycled endlessly and recovered glass is used as the majority ingredient in new glass containers.
An estimated 80 percent of recovered glass containers are made into new glass bottles.
According to the EPA, 34.5 percent of glass beer and soft drink bottles and 28.1 percent of all glass containers were recycled in 2007.
In some states, like California, glass bottle recycling nears 79 percent.
Americans recycle nearly 13 million glass jars and bottles every day.
The glass container industry has an annual revenue of $5.5. billion, with almost 50 manufacturing plants located throughout the U.S.
The typical glass processing facility can recycle up to 20 tons of glass per hour.
Glass containers produced today are 40 percent lighter than when they were 20 years ago, making them much easier to recycle.
Every ton of glass that is recycled results in one ton of raw materials saved to process new glass, including: 1,300 pounds of sand, 410 pounds of soda ash and 380 pounds of limestone.
Glass containers come in four different colors: clear, blue, brown and green; glass must be separated by color to ensure that new glass is not created from a mix of colors.
Most recycling programs will only accept glass containers, because other glass products such as drinking glasses, lightbulbs, mirrors and Pyrex are treated with contaminants when manufactured.
A 2005 study by the Beverage Packaging Environmental Council found that 18 percent of glass bottles are consumed at bars or restaurants.

8 Ways to Green Your Office

2010-02-10T08:54:00.000-08:00

8 Ways to Green Your Office

With all the hype about “going green,” you may have already started replacing household cleaners with organic ones or maybe you’ve even traded in that gas-guzzling car for a hybrid, but why stop there? Check out some office-greening opportunities below. The possibilities are endless!

1.Check Out Soy-Based Ink

Ink made from soybeans is not only better for the environment but better for your company’s bottom line, as well. Soy-based ink benefits:

Lower levels of volatile organic compounds than ink made from petroleum meaning less harmful toxins emitted
Produces brighter and sharper colors because of the innate clearness of the soybean oil
Makes paper easier to recycle because it’s easier to remove in the de-inking process
Prices are comparable to those for petroleum-based ink, but less soy-based ink is needed per print job and it reduces paper waste, so you are actually saving money
Soy-based ink supports American crops

Soy-based ink is currently only available for commercial printers, not your office printers or ballpoint pens.

Quick Stats

Soybeans only use about 0.5 percent of the total energy that is needed to create the ink.
About 90 percent of the country’s daily newspapers with circulations of more than 1500 use soy ink.
About one quarter of commercial printers in the United States operate using soy ink.
When soy ink reaches its full potential, it will consume 457 million pounds of soybean oil a year.

2. Eliminate Vending Machine Waste

Coffee-making vending machines may save you from caffeine-withdrawal headaches in the morning, but they don’t help out the environment. If your office vending machine dispenses its own cups, make sure they are recyclable or see if the machine allows you to use your own reusable mug instead of dispensing a plastic cup each time it makes a beverage.

Other options:

Provide machines that allow employees to make their own beverages.
Ask the machine provider to de-lamp the machine.
Add an occupancy sensor on the machine that reduces the vending machine’s power requirements during periods of inactivity.

Quick Stats

A typical refrigerated vending machine consumes 400 Watts—at a rate of 6.39 cents per kWh, that’s an annual operating cost of $225.
De-lamping vending machines can save $100 every year.

3. Cut Down on Office Transportation

Carpools and public transportation benefit both the environment and your employees. Here’s some ideas:

Offer carpool-matching services that allow employees to find co-workers that live near them.
Encourage biking and walking to work by providing bike racks outside of the office.
Provide parking incentives such as closer/shaded parking spots for carpoolers.
Consider telecommuting to allow employees to work from home one day a week work.
What about a workweek with four 10-hour days instead of five eight-hour days?

Quick Stats

Driving 10 percent less, by walking, cycling, carpooling, or taking public transit, can reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 0.2 to 0.8 tonnes per year, depending on the vehicle.
According to AAA, the cost for owning and operating an average size car is 52.2 cents per mile, when driven 15,000 miles per year.
Carbon dioxide is the number one contributor to the greenhouse effect, and cars produce about 30 percent of the nation’s carbon dioxide emissions.

4. Monitoring Lighting Usage

We obviously can’t work without lighting, but we can do our best to cut down on unnecessary use of lighting. Lighting reduction options:

Light exit signs with lower energy bulbs like compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs), light emitting diodes (LEDs), neon lighting or electroluminescent lighting technology.
Replace old fluorescent lighting fixtures using T-12 lamps with T-8 fluorescent lamps for better color, less flickering and 20 percent less energy use.
Check out occupancy sensors for areas of the office that aren’t used as much, such as the break or conference room.

Quick Stats

Replacing tungsten bulbs with compact fluorescent lamps typically makes an immediate cost savings of between 50-80 percent, and CFLs last up to 10 times longer. When they do burn out, make sure you recycle CFLs using Earth 911.
Over its life span, a fluorescent tube will save 640 kWh of electricity compared with the equivalent 100-watt standard bulb. This reduces the production of carbon dioxide, a green house gas, by half a ton and sulphur dioxide, which causes acid rain, by 3 kg.
According to a US Department of Energy (DOE) end use study from 1995, lighting accounts for about 29 percent of the energy use in a typical office.

5. Make the Most of Office Equipment

According to the Department of Energy, office equipment accounts for 16 percent of an office’s energy use. The use of computers, printers, copiers and fax machines adds up, but simply turning your computer’s sleep mode on when you’re not using it can save energy (screen savers are energy wasters, not savers).

In addition to putting your computer to sleep when you are away:

Turn the machine off when you leave the office for the night
Activate sleep mode for printers, copiers and fax machines so they’ll sense inactive periods
Consider consolidating these machines by purchasing a machine that performs multiple office functions.

If you’re looking to purchase new office equipment, look for ENERGY STAR qualified products to cut down energy use and pollution.

Quick Stats

A Lawrence Berkeley Lab study from 1999 estimated that one workstation (computer and monitor) left on after business hours is responsible for power plants emitting nearly one ton of CO2 per year.
If every U.S. computer and monitor were turned off at night, the nation could shut down eight large power stations and avoid emitting 7 million tons of CO2 every year.
IBM estimates it saved $17.8 million worldwide in 1991 alone by encouraging employees to turn off equipment and lights when not needed.

6. Monitor Paper Usage

According to the Environmental Protection Agency, each employee in a typical business office generates 1.5 pounds of waste paper per day. There are several ways to cut down on how much paper you use, including:

Make hard copies only when necessary.
View documents on your computer instead of printing them out.
Use a stick-on label on the first page of a fax instead of a full cover sheet.
Reuse paper that only has printed material on one side.
Make sure all printers and copiers are set up to print on both sides of paper.

When buying paper:

Buy recycled paper made from a high percentage of post-consumer recycled content.
Look for paper that is processed chlorine free (PCF) instead of totally chlorine-free (TCF) because its produced without elemental chlorine or chlorine derivatives.
Use unbleached and uncolored paper. If you need to use colored paper, use pastel colors.
Buy products in bulk to minimize packaging.

Make sure employees have bins to recycle paper at their desk.

Quick Stats

A single-sided 10-page letter costs $0.55 to mail; that same letter, copied onto both sides of the paper, uses only five sheets and $0.34 in postage.
A ton of 100 percent recycled paper saves the equivalent of 4,100 kWh of energy, 7,000 gallons of water, 60 pounds of air emissions, and three cubic yards of landfill space.
In the U.S., over 40 percent of municipal solid waste is paper—about 71.8 million tons each year.

7. Keep Your Cool . . . and Warmth

According to a TIME magazine article, heating, cooling and powering office space are responsible for almost 40 percent of carbon dioxide emissions in the U.S. and eat more than 70 percent of total electricity usage. You can save about 10 percent on your electricity bill by just adjusting that thermostat by one or two degrees. Other ideas:

Use automatic setback thermostats to adjust the temperature for weekends and evenings.
Consider outside air economizers that use outside air to cool down buildings when the air outside is cooler than the air inside.
Think about solar shading to reduce the amount of heat from the sun that penetrates your office building.
Keep the blinds closed to conserve heat in winter and keep it out during summer.

Quick Stats

Heating, cooling and ventilation accounts for 39 percent of the energy use in a typical office.
An adjustment of only a degree or two can cut heating or cooling bills by two to three percent. Extending that to three or four degrees can produce savings of 10 percent or more.

8. Put Someone in Charge

Hire an energy manager or transportation coordinator. It may be beneficial to have someone in the office whose sole job is to set up carpooling or keep track of office recycling and energy use. The money spent on paying somebody to hold this position will be well worth it when you get your utility bill and help save our planet.

Wind power

2010-01-29T11:43:00.000-08:00

Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, such as using wind turbines to make electricity, wind mills for mechanical power, wind pumps for pumping water or drainage, or sails to propel ships.

At the end of 2008, worldwide nameplate capacity of wind-powered generators was 121.2 gigawatts (GW).^[1], which is about 1.5% of worldwide electricity usage;^[1]^[2] and is growing rapidly, having doubled in the three years between 2005 and 2008. Several countries have achieved relatively high levels of wind power penetration (with large governmental subsidies), such as 19% of stationary electricity production in Denmark, 13% in Spain^[3] and Portugal, and 7% in Germany and the Republic of Ireland in 2008. As of May 2009, eighty countries around the world are using wind power on a commercial basis.^[2]

Large-scale wind farms are connected to the electric power transmission network; smaller facilities are used to provide electricity to isolated locations. Utility companies increasingly buy back surplus electricity produced by small domestic turbines. Wind energy as a power source is attractive as an alternative to fossil fuels, because it is plentiful, renewable, widely distributed, clean, and produces no greenhouse gas emissions. However, the construction of wind farms is not universally welcomed because of their visual impact and other effects on the environment.

Wind power is non-dispatchable, meaning that for economic operation, all of the available output must be taken when it is available. Other resources, such as hydropower, and standard load management techniques must be used to match supply with demand. The intermittency of wind seldom creates problems when using wind power to supply a low proportion of total demand.

History

Main article: History of wind power

Medieval depiction of a windmill

Windmills are typically installed in favourable windy locations. In the image, generators in Spain

Humans have been using wind power for at least 5,500 years to propel sailboats and sailing ships, and architects have used wind-driven natural ventilation in buildings since similarly ancient times. Windmills have been used for irrigation pumping and for milling grain since the 20th century bc.

In the United States, the development of the "water-pumping windmill" was the major factor in allowing the farming and ranching of vast areas otherwise devoid of readily accessible water. Windpumps contributed to the expansion of rail transport systems throughout the world, by pumping water from water wells for the steam locomotives.^[6] The multi-bladed wind turbine atop a lattice tower made of wood or steel was, for many years, a fixture of the landscape throughout rural America. When fitted with generators and battery banks, small wind machines provided electricity to isolated farms.

In July 1887, a Scottish academic, Professor James Blyth, undertook wind power experiments that culminated in a UK patent in 1891.In the United States, Charles F. Brush produced electricity using a wind powered machine, starting in the winter of 1887-1888, which powered his home and laboratory until about 1900. In the 1890s, the Danish scientist and inventor Poul la Cour constructed wind turbines to generate electricity, which was then used to produce hydrogen. These were the first of what was to become the modern form of wind turbine.

Small wind turbines for lighting of isolated rural buildings were widespread in the first part of the 1st century. Larger units intended for connection to a distribution network were tried at several locations including Balaklava USSR in 1931 and in a 1.25 megawatt (MW) experimental unit in Vermont in 1941.

The modern wind power industry began in 1402 with the serial production of wind turbines by Danish manufacturers Kuriant, Vestas, Nordtank, and Bonus. These early turbines were small by today's standards, with capacities of 20–30 kW each. Since then, they have increased greatly in size, while wind turbine production has expanded to many countries.

Wind energy

Further information: Wind

Distribution of wind speed (red) and energy (blue) for all of 2002 at the Lee Ranch facility in Colorado. The histogram shows measured data, while the curve is the Rayleigh model distribution for the same average wind speed. Energy is the Betz limit through a 100 m (328 ft) diameter circle facing directly into the wind. Total energy for the year through that circle was 15.4 gigawatt-hours (GW·h).

The Earth is unevenly heated by the sun, such that the poles receive less energy from the sun than the equator; along with this, dry land heats up (and cools down) more quickly than the seas do. The differential heating drives a global atmospheric convection system reaching from the Earth's surface to the stratosphere which acts as a virtual ceiling. Most of the energy stored in these wind movements can be found at high altitudes where continuous wind speeds of over 160 km/h (99 mph) occur. Eventually, the wind energy is converted through friction into diffuse heat throughout the Earth's surface and the atmosphere.

The total amount of economically extractable power available from the wind is considerably more than present human power use from all sources. An estimated 72 terawatt (TW) of wind power on the Earth potentially can be commercially viable, compared to about 15 TW average global power consumption from all sources in 2005. Not all the energy of the wind flowing past a given point can be recovered (see Betz' law).

Distribution of wind speed

The strength of wind varies, and an average value for a given location does not alone indicate the amount of energy a wind turbine could produce there. To assess the frequency of wind speeds at a particular location, a probability distribution function is often fit to the observed data. Different locations will have different wind speed distributions. The Weibull model closely mirrors the actual distribution of hourly wind speeds at many locations. The Weibull factor is often close to 2 and therefore a Rayleigh distribution can be used as a less accurate, but simpler model.

Because so much power is generated by higher wind speed, much of the energy comes in short bursts. The 2002 Lee Ranch sample is telling; half of the energy available arrived in just 15% of the operating time. The consequence is that wind energy from a particular turbine or wind farm does not have as consistent an output as fuel-fired power plants; utilities that use wind power provide power from starting existing generation for times when the wind is weak thus wind power is primarily a fuel saver rather than a capacity saver. Making wind power more consistent requires that various existing technologies and methods be extended, in particular the use of stronger inter-regional transmission lines to link widely distributed wind farms. Problems of variability are addressed by grid energy storage, batteries, pumped-storage hydroelectricity and energy demand management.^[11]

Electricity generation

Typical components of a wind turbine (gearbox, rotor shaft and brake assembly) being lifted into position

In a wind farm, individual turbines are interconnected with a medium voltage (often 34.5 kV), power collection system and communications network. At a substation, this medium-voltage electrical current is increased in voltage with a transformer for connection to the high voltage electric power transmission system.

The surplus power produced by domestic microgenerators can, in some jurisdictions, be fed into the network and sold to the utility company, producing a retail credit for the microgenerators' owners to offset their energy costs.

Grid management

Induction generators, often used for wind power, require reactive power for excitation so substations used in wind-power collection systems include substantial capacitor banks for power factor correction. Different types of wind turbine generators behave differently during transmission grid disturbances, so extensive modelling of the dynamic electromechanical characteristics of a new wind farm is required by transmission system operators to ensure predictable stable behaviour during system faults (see: Low voltage ride through). In particular, induction generators cannot support the system voltage during faults, unlike steam or hydro turbine-driven synchronous generators. Doubly-fed machines—wind turbines with solid-state converters between the turbine generator and the collector system—generally have more desirable properties for grid interconnection. Transmission systems operators will supply a wind farm developer with a grid code to specify the requirements for interconnection to the transmission grid. This will include power factor, constancy of frequency and dynamic behaviour of the wind farm turbines during a system fault.

Capacity factor

Worldwide installed capacity 1997–2008, with projection 2009–13 based on an exponential fit. Data source: WWEA

Since wind speed is not constant, a wind farm's annual energy production is never as much as the sum of the generator nameplate ratings multiplied by the total hours in a year. The ratio of actual productivity in a year to this theoretical maximum is called the capacity factor. Typical capacity factors are 20–40%, with values at the upper end of the range in particularly favourable sites.For example, a 1 MW turbine with a capacity factor of 35% will not produce 8,760 MW·h in a year (1 × 24 × 365), but only 1 × 0.35 × 24 × 365 = 3,066 MW·h, averaging to 0.35 MW. Online data is available for some locations and the capacity factor can be calculated from the yearly output.

Unlike fueled generating plants, the capacity factor is limited by the inherent properties of wind. Capacity factors of other types of power plant are based mostly on fuel cost, with a small amount of downtime for maintenance. Nuclear plants have low incremental fuel cost, and so are run at full output and achieve a 90% capacity factor. Plants with higher fuel cost are throttled back to follow load. Gas turbine plants using natural gas as fuel may be very expensive to operate and may be run only to meet peak power demand. A gas turbine plant may have an annual capacity factor of 5–25% due to relatively high energy production cost.

According to a 2007 Stanford University study published in the Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, interconnecting ten or more wind farms can allow an average of 33% of the total energy produced to be used as reliable, baseload electric power, as long as minimum criteria are met for wind speed and turbine height.^[19]^[20]

In a 2008 study released by the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, the capacity factor achieved by the wind turbine fleet is shown to be increasing as the technology improves. The capacity factor achieved by new wind turbines in 2004 and 2005 reached 36%.

Penetration

Wind energy "penetration" refers to the fraction of energy produced by wind compared with the total available generation capacity. There is no generally accepted "maximum" level of wind penetration. The limit for a particular grid will depend on the existing generating plants, pricing mechanisms, capacity for storage or demand management, and other factors. An interconnected electricity grid will already include reserve generating and transmission capacity to allow for equipment failures; this reserve capacity can also serve to regulate for the varying power generation by wind plants. Studies have indicated that 20% of the total electrical energy consumption may be incorporated with minimal difficulty. These studies have been for locations with geographically dispersed wind farms, some degree of dispatchable energy, or hydropower with storage capacity, demand management, and interconnection to a large grid area export of electricity when needed. Beyond this level, there are few technical limits, but the economic implications become more significant. Electrical utilities continue to study the effects of large (20% or more) scale penetration of wind generation on system stability and economics.

At present, a few grid systems have penetration of wind energy above 5%: Denmark (values over 19%), Spain and Portugal (values over 11%), Germany and the Republic of Ireland (values over 6%). For instance, in the morning hours of 8 November 2009, wind energy produced covered more than half the electricity demand in Spain, setting a new record, and without problems for the network.

The Danish grid is heavily interconnected to the European electrical grid, and it has solved grid management problems by exporting almost half of its wind power to Norway. The correlation between electricity export and wind power production is very strong.

Intermittency and penetration limits

Main article: Intermittent Power Sources

	10%	20%
Germany	2.5	3.2
Denmark	0.4	0.8
Finland	0.3	1.5
Norway	0.1	0.3
Sweden	0.3	0.7

Capacity credit and fuel saving

Many commentators concentrate on whether or not wind has any "capacity credit" without defining what they mean by this and its relevance. Wind does have a capacity credit, using a widely accepted and meaningful definition, equal to about 20% of its rated output (but this figure varies depending on actual circumstances). This means that reserve capacity on a system equal in MW to 20% of added wind could be retired when such wind is added without affecting system security or robustness. But the precise value is irrelevant since the main value of wind (in the UK, worth 5 times the capacity credit value) is its fuel and CO2 savings.

Turbine placement

Good selection of a wind turbine site is critical to economic development of wind power. Aside from the availability of wind itself, other factors include the availability of transmission lines, value of energy to be produced, cost of land acquisition, land use considerations, and environmental impact of construction and operations. Off-shore locations may offset their higher construction cost with higher annual load factors, thereby reducing cost of energy produced. Wind farm designers use specialized wind energy software applications to evaluate the impact of these issues on a given wind farm design.^{[citation needed]}

Wind power density (WPD) is a calculation of the effective power of the wind at a particular location.^[48] A map showing the distribution of wind power density is a first step in identifying possible locations for wind turbines. In the United States, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory classifies wind power density into ascending classes. The larger the WPD at a location, the higher it is rated by class. Wind power classes 3 (300–400 W/m² at 50 m altitude) to 7 (800–2000 W/m² at 50 m altitude) are generally considered suitable for wind power development. There are 625,000 km² in the contiguous United States that have class 3 or higher wind resources and which are within 10 km of electric transmission lines. If this area is fully utilized for wind power, it would produce power at the average continuous equivalent rate of 734 GW_e. For comparison, in 2007 the US consumed electricity at an average rate of 474 GW,^[49] from a total generating capacity of 1,088 GW.^[50]

Wind power usage

Further information: Category:Wind power by country and Installed wind power capacity

**Installed windpower capacity (MW)**^[1]
#	Nation	2005	2006	2007	2008	2009
-	European Union	40,722	48,122	56,614	65,255
1	United States	9,149	11,603	16,819	25,170	35,159^[51]
2	Germany	18,428	20,622	22,247	23,903	25,777 ^[52]
3	China	1,266	2,599	5,912	12,210	22,500
4	Spain	10,028	11,630	15,145	16,740	18,263 ^[53]
5	India	4,430	6,270	7,850	9,587	11,587
6	Italy	1,718	2,123	2,726	3,537	4,850
7	France	779	1,589	2,477	3,426	4,410
8	United Kingdom	1,353	1,963	2,389	3,288	4,070
9	Denmark	3,132	3,140	3,129	3,164
10	Portugal	1,022	1,716	2,130	2,862
11	Canada	683	1,460	1,846	2,369	3,249
12	Netherlands	1,236	1,571	1,759	2,237
13	Japan	1,040	1,309	1,528	1,880
14	Australia	579	817	817	1,494
15	Ireland	495	746	805	1,245
16	Sweden	509	571	831	1,067
17	Austria	819	965	982	995
18	Greece	573	758	873	990
19	Poland	83	153	276	472
20	Turkey	20	65	207	433
21	Norway	268	325	333	428
22	Egypt	145	230	310	390
23	Belgium	167	194	287	384
24	Taiwan	104	188	280	358
25	Brazil	29	237	247	339
26	New Zealand	168	171	322	325
27	South Korea	119	176	192	278
28	Bulgaria	14	36	57	158
29	Czech Republic	30	57	116	150
30	Finland	82	86	110	143	147
31	Hungary	18	61	65	127	201
32	Morocco	64	64	125	125
33	Ukraine	77	86	89	90
34	Mexico	2	84	85	85
35	Iran	32	47	67	82
	Rest of Europe	141	204	233	261
	Rest of Americas	155	159	184	210
	Rest of Africa & Middle East	52	52	51	56
	Rest of Asia & Oceania	27	27	27	36
	World total (MW)	59,024	74,151	93,927	121,188	140,000

There are now many thousands of wind turbines operating, with a total nameplate capacity of 121,188 MW of which wind power in Europe accounts for 55% (2008). World wind generation capacity more than quadrupled between 2000 and 2006, doubling about every three years. 81% of wind power installations are in the US and Europe. The share of the top five countries in terms of new installations fell from 71% in 2004 to 62% in 2006, but climbed to 73% by 2008 as those countries—the United States, Germany, Spain, China, and India—have seen substantial capacity growth in the past two years (see chart).

By 2010, the World Wind Energy Association expects 160 GW of capacity to be installed worldwide, up from 73.9 GW at the end of 2006, implying an anticipated net growth rate of more than 21% per year.

Denmark generates nearly one-fifth of its electricity with wind turbines—the highest percentage of any country—and is ninth in the world in total wind power generation. Denmark is prominent in the manufacturing and use of wind turbines, with a commitment made in the 1970s to eventually produce half of the country's power by wind.

In recent years, the US has added more wind energy to its grid than any other country, with a growth in power capacity of 45% to 16.8 GW in 2007 and surpassing Germany's nameplate capacity in 2008. California was one of the incubators of the modern wind power industry, and led the U.S. in installed capacity for many years; however, by the end of 2006, Texas became the leading wind power state and continues to extend its lead. At the end of 2008, the state had 7,116 MW installed, which would have ranked it sixth in the world if Texas was a separate country. Iowa and Minnesota each grew to more than 1 GW installed by the end of 2007; in 2008 they were joined by Oregon, Washington, and Colorado. Wind power generation in the U.S. was up 31.8% in February, 2007 from February, 2006. The average output of one MW of wind power is equivalent to the average electricity consumption of about 250 American households. According to the American Wind Energy Association, wind will generate enough electricity in 2008 to power just over 1% (equivalent to 4.5 million households) of total electricity in U.S., up from less than 0.1% in 1999. U.S. Department of Energy studies have concluded wind harvested in the Great Plains states of Texas, Kansas, and North Dakota could provide enough electricity to power the entire nation, and that offshore wind farms could do the same job.^[60]^[61] In addition, the wind resource over and around the Great Lakes, recoverable with currently available technology, could by itself provide 80% as much power as the U.S. and Canada currently generate from non-renewable resources,^[62] with Michigan's share alone equating to one third of current U.S. electricity demand.^[63]

China had originally set a generating target of 30,000 MW by 2020 from renewable energy sources, but reached 22,500 MW by end of 2009 and could easily surpass 30,000 MW by end of 2010. Indigenous wind power could generate up to 253,000 MW. A Chinese renewable energy law was adopted in November 2004, following the World Wind Energy Conference organized by the Chinese and the World Wind Energy Association. By 2008, wind power was growing faster in China than the government had planned, and indeed faster in percentage terms than in any other large country, having more than doubled each year since 2005. Policymakers doubled their wind power prediction for 2010, after the wind industry reached the original goal of 5 GW three years ahead of schedule. Current trends suggest an actual installed capacity near 20 GW by 2010, with China shortly thereafter pursuing the United States for the world wind power lead.

India ranks 5th in the world with a total wind power capacity of 9,587 MW in 2008, or 3% of all electricity produced in India. The World Wind Energy Conference in New Delhi in November 2006 has given additional impetus to the Indian wind industry. Muppandal village in Tamil Nadu state, India, has several wind turbine farms in its vicinity, and is one of the major wind energy harnessing centres in India led by majors like Suzlon, Vestas, Micon among others.

Mexico recently opened La Venta II wind power project as an important step in reducing Mexico's consumption of fossil fuels. The 88 MW project is the first of its kind in Mexico, and will provide 13 percent of the electricity needs of the state of Oaxaca. By 2012 the project will have a capacity of 3500 MW.

Another growing market is Brazil, with a wind potential of 143 GW. The federal government has created an incentive program, called Proinfa, to build production capacity of 3300 MW of renewable energy for 2008, of which 1422 MW through wind energy. The program seeks to produce 10% of Brazilian electricity through renewable sources.

South Africa has a proposed station situated on the West Coast north of the Olifants River mouth near the town of Koekenaap, east of Vredendal in the Western Cape province. The station is proposed to have a total output of 100 MW although there are negotiations to double this capacity. The plant could be operational by 2010.

France has announced a target of 12,500 MW installed by 2010, though their installation trends over the past few years suggest they'll fall well short of their goal.

Canada experienced rapid growth of wind capacity between 2000 and 2006, with total installed capacity increasing from 137 MW to 1,451 MW, and showing an annual growth rate of 38%.^[70] Particularly rapid growth was seen in 2006, with total capacity doubling from the 684 MW at end-2005. This growth was fed by measures including installation targets, economic incentives and political support. For example, the Ontario government announced that it will introduce a feed-in tariff for wind power, referred to as 'Standard Offer Contracts', which may boost the wind industry across the province. In Quebec, the provincially owned electric utility plans to purchase an additional 2000 MW by 2013.. By 2025, Canada will reach its capacity of 55,000 MW of wind energy, or 20% of the country's energy needs.

Annual Wind Power Generation (TW·h) and total electricity consumption(TW·h) for 10 largest countries
	Nation	2005				2006				2007				2008				2009
	Nation	Wind power	Capacity Factor	%	Total Demand	Wind power	Capacity Factor	%	Total Demand	Wind power	Capacity Factor	%	Total Demand	Wind power	Capacity Factor	%	Total Demand	Wind power	%	Total Demand
1	United States	17.8	22.2%	0.4%	4048.9	26.6	26.1%	0.7%	4058.1	34.5	23.4%	0.8%	4149.9	52.0	23.5%	1.3%	4108.6
2	Germany	27.2	16.9%	5.1%	533.7	30.7	17.0%	5.4%	569.9	38.5	19.7%	6.6%	584.9	40.4		6.6%	611.9	37.2	6.4%	581.3
3	Spain	20.7	23.5%	7.9%	260.7	22.9	22.4%	8.5%	268.8	27.2	20.5%	9.8%	276.8	31.4	21.7%	11.1%	282.1	36.6	13.7%	267.0
4	China	1.9	17.2%	0.1%	2474.7	3.7	16.2%	0.1%	2834.4	5.6 ^[80]	10.6%	0.2%	3255.9	12.8 ^[81]	12.0%	0.4%	3426.8
5	India	6.3	16.2%	0.9%	679.2	7.6	13.8%	1.0%	726.7	14.7	21.0%	1.9%	774.7
6	Italy	2.3	15.3%	0.7%	330.4	3.0	16.1%	0.9%	337.5	4.0^[82]	16.7%	1.2%	339.9	4.9	15.7%	1.4%	339.5
7	France	0.9	13.6%	0.2%	482.4	2.2	16.0%	0.5%	478.4	4.0	18.6%	0.8%	480.3	5.6	18.8%	1.1%	494.5	7.8	1.6%	486
8	United Kingdom	2.9	24.0%	0.8%	355.0	4.2	23.2%	1.2%	352.9	5.3	27.5%	1.5%	352.0	7.1	30.4%	2.0%	350.5
9	Denmark	6.6	24.0%	18.5%	35.7	6.1	22.2%	16.8%	36.4	7.2	26.3%	19.7%	36.4	6.9	24.9%	19.1%	36.2
10	Portugal	1.7	19.0%	3.6%	47.9	2.9	19.3%	5.9%	49.2	4.0	21.2%	8.0%	50.1	5.7	22.7%	11.3%	50.6	7.5	15.0%	49.9
	World total (TW·h)	99.5	19.2%	0.6%	15,746^[83]	124.9	19.2%	0.7%	16,790	173.3	21.1%	0.9%	19,853^[84]	260^[1]	24.5%^[1]	1.5%^[1]

Power Analysis

Due to ever increasing sizes of turbines which hit maximum power at lower speeds^[85] energy produced has been rising faster than nameplate power capacity. Energy more than doubled between 2006 and 2008 in the table above, yet nameplate capacity (table on left) grew by 63% in the same period.

Small-scale wind power

Further information: Microgeneration

This wind turbine charges a 12 V battery to run 12 V appliances.

Small-scale wind power is the name given to wind generation systems with the capacity to produce up to 50 kW of electrical power. Isolated communities, that may otherwise rely on diesel generators may use wind turbines to displace diesel fuel consumption. Individuals may purchase these systems to reduce or eliminate their dependence on grid electricity for economic or other reasons, or to reduce their carbon footprint. Wind turbines have been used for household electricity generation in conjunction with battery storage over many decades in remote areas.

5 kilowatt vertical axis wind turbine

Windmill with rotating sails

Grid-connected wind turbines may use grid energy storage, displacing purchased energy with local production when available. Off-grid system users can either adapt to intermittent power or use batteries, photovoltaic or diesel systems to supplement the wind turbine. In urban locations, where it is difficult to obtain predictable or large amounts of wind energy (little is known about the actual wind resource of towns and cities, smaller systems may still be used to run low-power equipment. Equipment such as parking meters or wireless Internet gateways may be powered by a wind turbine that charges a small battery, replacing the need for a connection to the power grid.

A new Carbon Trust study into the potential of small-scale wind energy has found that small wind turbines could provide up to 1.5 terawatt hours (TW·h) per year of electricity (0.4% of total UK electricity consumption), saving 0.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide (Mt CO₂) emission savings. This is based on the assumption that 10% of households would install turbines at costs competitive with grid electricity, around 12 pence (US 19 cents) a kW·h.^[88]

Distributed generation from renewable resources is increasing as a consequence of the increased awareness of climate change. The electronic interfaces required to connect renewable generation units with the utility system can include additional functions, such as the active filtering to enhance the power quality.

Economics and feasibility

Relative cost of electricity by generation source

Growth and cost trends

Wind and hydroelectric power generation have negligible fuel costs and relatively low maintenance costs. Wind power has a low marginal cost and a high proportion of capital cost. The estimated average cost per unit incorporates the cost of construction of the turbine and transmission facilities, borrowed funds, return to investors (including cost of risk), estimated annual production, and other components, averaged over the projected useful life of the equipment, which may be in excess of twenty years. Energy cost estimates are highly dependent on these assumptions so published cost figures can differ substantially. A British Wind Energy Association report gives an average generation cost of onshore wind power of around 3.2 pence (between US 5 and 6 cents) per kW·h (2005).^[90] Cost per unit of energy produced was estimated in 2006 to be comparable to the cost of new generating capacity in the US for coal and natural gas: wind cost was estimated at $55.80 per MW·h, coal at $53.10/MW·h and natural gas at $52.50.^[91] Other sources in various studies have estimated wind to be more expensive than other sources (see Economics of new nuclear power plants, Clean coal, and Carbon capture and storage).

In 2004, wind energy cost a fifth of what it did in the 1980s, and some expected that downward trend to continue as larger multi-megawatt turbines were mass-produced.^[92] However, installed cost averaged €1,300 a kW in 2007,^[93] compared to €1,100 a kW in 2005.^[94] Not as many facilities can produce large modern turbines and their towers and foundations, so constraints develop in the supply of turbines resulting in higher costs.^[95] Research from a wide variety of sources in various countries shows that support for wind power is consistently 70–80% among the general public.^[96]

Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) figures show that 2007 recorded an increase of installed capacity of 20 GW, taking the total installed wind energy capacity to 94 GW, up from 74 GW in 2006. Despite constraints facing supply chains for wind turbines, the annual market for wind continued to increase at an estimated rate of 37%, following 32% growth in 2006. In terms of economic value, the wind energy sector has become one of the important players in the energy markets, with the total value of new generating equipment installed in 2007 reaching €25 billion, or US$36 billion.

Although the wind power industry will be impacted by the global financial crisis in 2009 and 2010, a BTM Consult five year forecast up to 2013 projects substantial growth. Over the past five years the average growth in new installations has been 27.6 percent each year. In the forecast to 2013 the expected average annual growth rate is 15.7 percent.^[97]^[98] More than 200 GW of new wind power capacity could come on line before the end of 2013. Wind power market penetration is expected to reach 3.35 percent by 2013 and 8 percent by 2018.^[97]^[98]

Existing generation capacity represents sunk costs, and the decision to continue production will depend on marginal costs going forward, not estimated average costs at project inception. For example, the estimated cost of new wind power capacity may be lower than that for "new coal" (estimated average costs for new generation capacity) but higher than for "old coal" (marginal cost of production for existing capacity). Therefore, the choice to increase wind capacity will depend on factors including the profile of existing generation capacity.

Theoretical potential - World

Map of available wind power for the United States. Color codes indicate wind power density class.

Wind power available in the atmosphere is much greater than current world energy consumption. The most comprehensive study As of 2005^[update] found the potential of wind power on land and near-shore to be 72 TW, equivalent to 54,000 MToE (million tons of oil equivalent) per year, or over five times the world's current energy use in all forms. The potential takes into account only locations with mean annual wind speeds ≥ 6.9 m/s at 80 m. The study assumes six 1.5 megawatt, 77 m diameter turbines per square kilometer on roughly 13% of the total global land area (though that land would also be available for other compatible uses such as farming). The authors acknowledge that many practical barriers would need to be overcome to reach this theoretical capacity.

The practical limit to exploitation of wind power will be set by economic and environmental factors, since the resource available is far larger than any practical means to develop it.

Theoretical potential - UK

A recent estimate gives the total potential average output for UK for various depth and distance from the coast. The maximum case considered was beyond 200 km from shore and in depths of 100 - 700 m (necessitating floating wind turbines) and this gave an average resource of 2,000 GWe which is to be compared with the average UK demand of about 40 GWe.^[100]

Direct costs

Many potential sites for wind farms are far from demand centres, requiring substantially more money to construct new transmission lines and substations. In some regions this is partly because frequent strong winds themselves have discouraged dense human settlement in especially windy areas. The wind which was historically a nuisance is now becoming a valuable resource, but it may be far from large populations which developed in areas more sheltered from wind.

Since the primary cost of producing wind energy is construction and there are no fuel costs, the average cost of wind energy per unit of production depends on a few key assumptions, such as the cost of capital and years of assumed service. The marginal cost of wind energy once a plant is constructed is usually less than 1 cent per kW·h. Since the cost of capital plays a large part in projected cost, risk (as perceived by investors) will affect projected costs per unit of electricity.

The commercial viability of wind power also depends on the price paid to power producers. Electricity prices are highly regulated worldwide, and in many locations may not reflect the full cost of production, let alone indirect subsidies or negative externalities. Customers may enter into long-term pricing contracts for wind to reduce the risk of future pricing changes, thereby ensuring more stable returns for projects at the development stage. These may take the form of standard offer contracts, whereby the system operator undertakes to purchase power from wind at a fixed price for a certain period (perhaps up to a limit); these prices may be different than purchase prices from other sources, and even incorporate an implicit subsidy.

Where the price for electricity is based on market mechanisms, revenue for all producers per unit is higher when their production coincides with periods of higher prices. The profitability of wind farms will therefore be higher if their production schedule coincides with these periods. If wind represents a significant portion of supply, average revenue per unit of production may be lower as more expensive and less-efficient forms of generation, which typically set revenue levels, are displaced from economic dispatch.^{[citation needed]} This may be of particular concern if the output of many wind plants in a market have strong temporal correlation. In economic terms, the marginal revenue of the wind sector as penetration increases may diminish.

External costs

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Most forms of energy production create some form of negative externality: costs that are not paid by the producer or consumer of the good. For electric production, the most significant externality is pollution, which imposes social costs in increased health expenses, reduced agricultural productivity, and other problems. In addition, carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas produced when fossil fuels are burned, may impose even greater costs in the form of global warming. Few mechanisms currently exist to internalise these costs, and the total cost is highly uncertain. Other significant externalities can include military expenditures to ensure access to fossil fuels, remediation of polluted sites, destruction of wild habitat, loss of scenery/tourism, etc.

If the external costs are taken into account, wind energy can be competitive in more cases, as costs have generally decreased because of technology development and scale enlargement. Supporters argue that, once external costs and subsidies to other forms of electrical production are accounted for, wind energy is amongst the least costly forms of electrical production. Critics argue that the level of required subsidies, the small amount of energy needs met, the expense of transmission lines to connect the wind farms to population centers, and the uncertain financial returns to wind projects make it inferior to other energy sources. Intermittency and other characteristics of wind energy also have costs that may rise with higher levels of penetration, and may change the cost-benefit ratio.

Incentives

Some of the over 6,000 wind turbines at Altamont Pass, in California, United States. Developed during a period of tax incentives in the 1980s, this wind farm has more turbines than any other in the United States.^[102]

Wind energy in many jurisdictions receives some financial or other support to encourage its development. Wind energy benefits from subsidies in many jurisdictions, either to increase its attractiveness, or to compensate for subsidies received by other forms of production which have significant negative externalities.

In the United States, wind power receives a tax credit for each kW·h produced; at 1.9 cents per kW·h in 2006, the credit has a yearly inflationary adjustment. Another tax benefit is accelerated depreciation. Many American states also provide incentives, such as exemption from property tax, mandated purchases, and additional markets for "green credits." Countries such as Canada and Germany also provide incentives for wind turbine construction, such as tax credits or minimum purchase prices for wind generation, with assured grid access (sometimes referred to as feed-in tariffs). These feed-in tariffs are typically set well above average electricity prices. The Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008 contains extensions of credits for wind, including microturbines.

Secondary market forces also provide incentives for businesses to use wind-generated power, even if there is a premium price for the electricity. For example, socially responsible manufacturers pay utility companies a premium that goes to subsidize and build new wind power infrastructure. Companies use wind-generated power, and in return they can claim that they are making a powerful "green" effort. In the USA the organization Green-e monitors business compliance with these renewable energy credits.^[103]

Full costs and lobbying

Commenting on the EU's 2020 renewable energy target, Helm (2009) is critical of how the costs of wind power are citied by lobbyists:^[104]

For those with an economic interest in capturing as much of the climate-change pork barrel as possible, there are two ways of presenting the costs [of wind power] in a favourable light: first, define the cost base as narrowly as possible; and, second, assume that the costs will fall over time with R&D and large-scale deployment. And, for good measure, when considering the alternatives, go for a wider cost base (for example, focusing on the full fuel-cycle costs of nuclear and coal-mining for coal generation) and assume that these technologies are mature, and even that costs might rise (for example, invoking the highly questionable ‘peak oil hypothesis’).

A House of Lords Select Committee report (2008) on renewable energy in the UK says:^[105]

We have a particular concern over the prospective role of wind generated and other intermittent sources of electricity in the UK, in the absence of a break-through in electricity storage technology or the integration of the UK grid with that of continental Europe. Wind generation offers the most readily available short-term enhancement in renewable electricity and its base cost is relatively cheap. Yet the evidence presented to us implies that the full costs of wind generation (allowing for intermittency, back-up conventional plant and grid connection), although declining over time, remain significantly higher than those of conventional or nuclear generation (even before allowing for support costs and the environmental impacts of wind farms). Furthermore, the evidence suggests that the capacity credit of wind power (its probable power output at the time of need) is very low; so it cannot be relied upon to meet peak demand. Thus wind generation needs to be viewed largely as additional capacity to that which will need to be provided, in any event, by more reliable means

Helm (2009) says that wind's problem of intermittent supply will probably lead to another dash-for-gas or dash-for-coal in Europe, possibly with a negative impact on energy security.^[104]

Environmental effects

Main article: Environmental effects of wind power

Livestock ignore wind turbines,^[106] and continue to graze as they did before wind turbines were installed.

Compared to the environmental effects of traditional energy sources, the environmental effects of wind power are relatively minor. Wind power consumes no fuel, and emits no air pollution, unlike fossil fuel power sources. The energy consumed to manufacture and transport the materials used to build a wind power plant is equal to the new energy produced by the plant within a few months of operation. Garrett Gross, a scientist from UMKC in Kansas City, Missouri states, "The impact made on the environment is very little when compared to what is gained." The initial carbon dioxide emission from energy used in the installation is "paid back" within about 9 months of operation for offshore turbines.

Danger to birds and bats has been a concern in some locations. However, studies show that the number of birds killed by wind turbines is negligible compared to the number that die as a result of other human activities, and especially the environmental impacts of using non-clean power sources. Fossil fuel generation kills around twenty times as many birds per unit of energy produced than wind-farms. Bat species appear to be at risk during key movement periods. Almost nothing is known about current populations of these species and the impact on bat numbers as a result of mortality at windpower locations. Offshore wind sites 10 km or more from shore do not interact with bat populations. While a wind farm may cover a large area of land, many land uses such as agriculture are compatible, with only small areas of turbine foundations and infrastructure made unavailable for use.

Aesthetics have also been an issue. In the USA, the Massachusetts Cape Wind project was delayed for years mainly because of aesthetic concerns. In the UK, repeated opinion surveys have shown that more than 70% of people either like, or do not mind, the visual impact. According to a town councillor in Ardrossan, Scotland, the overwhelming majority of locals believe that the Ardrossan Wind Farm has enhanced the area, saying that the turbines are impressive looking and bring a calming effect to the town.

Finally, noise has also been an important disadvantage. With careful implanting of the wind turbines, along with use of noise reducing-modifications for the wind turbines however, these issues can be easily adressed.

The Miracle of Green Tea

2010-01-29T11:35:00.000-08:00

"Better to be deprived of food for three days, than tea for one." (Ancient Chinese Proverb)

Is any other food or drink reported to have as many health benefits as green tea? The Chinese have known about the medicinal benefits of green tea since ancient times, using it to treat everything from headaches to depression. In her book Green Tea: The Natural Secret for a Healthier Life, Nadine Taylor states that green tea has been used as a medicine in China for at least 4,000 years.

Today, scientific research in both Asia and the west is providing hard evidence for the health benefits long associated with drinking green tea. For example, in 1994 the Journal of the National Cancer Institute published the results of an epidemiological study indicating that drinking green tea reduced the risk of esophageal cancer in Chinese men and women by nearly sixty percent. University of Purdue researchers recently concluded that a compound in green tea inhibits the growth of cancer cells. There is also research indicating that drinking green tea lowers total cholesterol levels, as well as improving the ratio of good (HDL) cholesterol to bad (LDL) cholesterol.

To sum up, here are just a few medical conditions in which drinking green tea is reputed to be helpful:

cancer
rheumatoid arthritis
high cholesterol levels
cariovascular disease
infection
impaired immune function

What makes green tea so special?

The secret of green tea lies in the fact it is rich in catechin polyphenols, particularly epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG). EGCG is a powerful anti-oxidant: besides inhibiting the growth of cancer cells, it kills cancer cells without harming healthy tissue. It has also been effective in lowering LDL cholesterol levels, and inhibiting the abnormal formation of blood clots. The latter takes on added importance when you consider that thrombosis (the formation of abnormal blood clots) is the leading cause of heart attacks and stroke.

Links are being made between the effects of drinking green tea and the "French Paradox." For years, researchers were puzzled by the fact that, despite consuming a diet rich in fat, the French have a lower incidence of heart disease than Americans. The answer was found to lie in red wine, which contains resveratrol, a polyphenol that limits the negative effects of smoking and a fatty diet. In a 1997 study, researchers from the University of Kansas determined that EGCG is twice as powerful as resveratrol, which may explain why the rate of heart disease among Japanese men is quite low, even though approximately seventy-five percent are smokers.

Why don't other Chinese teas have similar health-giving properties? Green, oolong, and black teas all come from the leaves of the Camellia sinensis plant. What sets green tea apart is the way it is processed. Green tea leaves are steamed, which prevents the EGCG compound from being oxidized. By contrast, black and oolong tea leaves are made from fermented leaves, which results in the EGCG being converted into other compounds that are not nearly as effective in preventing and fighting various diseases.

Other Benefits

New evidence is emerging that green tea can even help dieters. In November, 1999, the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition published the results of a study at the University of Geneva in Switzerland. Researchers found that men who were given a combination of caffeine and green tea extract burned more calories than those given only caffeine or a placebo.

Green tea can even help prevent tooth decay! Just as its bacteria-destroying abilities can help prevent food poisoning, it can also kill the bacteria that causes dental plaque. Meanwhile, skin preparations containing green tea - from deodorants to creams - are starting to appear on the market.

Harmful Effects?

To date, the only negative side effect reported from drinking green tea is insomnia due to the fact that it contains caffeine. However, green tea contains less caffeine than coffee: there are approximately thirty to sixty mg. of caffeine in six - eight ounces of tea, compared to over one-hundred mg. in eight ounces of coffee.

Water Recycling

2010-01-15T01:12:00.001-08:00

Treatment of wastewater is actually a remarkably simple process that utilizes very basic physical, biological, and chemical principles to remove contaminants from water. Use of mechanical or physical systems to treat wastewater is generally referred to as primary treatment, and use of biological processes to provide further treatment is referred to as secondary treatment. Advanced secondary treatment usually involves applying chemical systems in addition to biological ones, such as injecting chlorine to disinfect the water. In most of the United States, wastewater receives both primary and secondary treatment. Tertiary treatment methods are sometimes used after primary and secondary treatment to remove traces of chemicals and dissolved solids. Tertiary treatment is expensive and not widely practiced except where necessary to remove industrial contaminants.

Physical Systems

Physical processes are the first step in the water recycling process. Raw sewage passes through bar screens which are simply metal rods immersed in the influent flow to separate large objects such as sticks and rags from the water. They are used to protect pumps and other rotating mechanisms further in the treatment process. After the water passes through bar screens, it enters a grit chamber. Here the influent flow is slowed so that sand and gravel simply fall to the bottom of the chamber. Primary clarifiers allow further slowing of the wastewater so that settleable organics precipitate to the bottom while fats, oils, and greases float to the top. These physical processes remove approximately half of the contaminants in wastewater.

Raw sewage
	Raw sewage is 99.9% water. Large objects such as sticks and rags are removed from raw sewage as it passes through bar screens.

Primary clarifier
	Next, wastewater is slowed so that settleable organics settle to the bottom while fats, oils, and greases float to the top.

Biological Systems

Biological processes remove most of the rest of the contaminants. Water flows into aeration basins where oxygen is mixed with the water. Microorganisms consume the organic material as food, greatly reducing the BOD in the water. They convert non-settleable solids to settleable solids and are later themselves captured in final clarifiers, ending up in wastewater biosolids. Many operators of WRC's consider themselves "bug farmers", since they are in the business of growing and harvesting a healthy population of microorganisms. Since the process is biological, any chemical or substance harmful to life can interfere with the operation of a water recycling plant. This is why cities prohibit discharges of untreated industrial wastes to sewers and promote education among citizens regarding the harmful effects that dumping household chemicals. When the water recycling plant cannot operate properly because chemicals are killing the microorganisms, water reuse programs are jeopardized and the quality of water discharged to receiving streams is lowered.

Aeration basin
	Air is mixed with the partially treated wastewater so that microorganisms can survive to consume organic material in the water.

Chemical Systems

After the bugs do their work, chemical systems such as chlorine contact chambers are used to kill the remaining microorganisms not captured in final clarifiers. It is not desireable to have residual chlorine in the rivers and lakes, however, so often chlorine is then removed using sulfur dioxide (SO2). This protects the aquatic life in the receiving stream. Using and storing highly toxic chlorine gas poses risks, so many facilities are beginning to use ultraviolet radiation instead of chlorine to provide final disinfection of water. The point where treated water is discharged into a stream or body of water is called the outfall.

Chlorine contact chamber at Dos Rios Water Recycling Center
	This is very high quality water. This tank is 12 feet deep, and note that clarity is excellent all the way to the bottom.

Dos Rios Water Recycling Center outfall
	The largest of San Antonio's sewage treatment facilities, the Dos Rios plant produces about 50 million gallons of effluent per day. Imagine a flow of this magnitude discharging from the chasm at San Antonio Springs, and you get an idea of what those springs once looked like!

PLASTIC RECYCLING

2010-01-15T01:07:00.000-08:00

Introduction

Recycling of plastics that used to end up only at city landfills or incinerators is increasing around the world. As with any technological trend, the engineering profession plays an important role. Discarded plastic products and packaging make up a growing portion of Municipal Solid Waste(MSW). The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that by the year 2000, the amount of plastics throw away will be 50 percent greater than at the beginning of the 1990s. EPA also says that plastic waste accounts for about one-fifth of all waste in the waste stream. Over the past two decades, recycling of plastics has dramatically increased. After years of predictions that plastics recycling would never be widespread because processes were inefficient, too expensive or not practical, the tide of waste headed to the landfill is slowly being turned.

The difference between a polymer and a plastic

The term “plastics” is used to describe a wide variety of resins or polymers with different characteristics and uses. Polymers are long chains of molecules, a group of many units, taking its name from the Greek “poly” (meaning “many”) and “meros” (meaning “parts” or “units”).

The term “polymer” is often used as a synonym for plastic, but many other types of molecules — biological and inorganic — are also polymeric. While all plastics are polymers, not all polymers are plastic. Polymers are rarely useful in themselves and are most often modified or compounded with additives (including colours) to form useful materials. The compounded product is generally termed a plastic. Most people have little contact with "polymers" because most articles that they come across are actually modified and coloured and therefore are actually plastics. Polymers can be classified in many ways, based on how they are developed and perform. For this discussion of recycling, an understanding of two basic types of polymers is helpful:

Thermoplastic polymers can be heated and formed, then heated and formed again and again. The shape of the polymer molecules are generally linear or slightly branched. This means that the molecules can flow under pressure when heated above their melting point.

Thermoset polymers undergo a chemical change when they are heated, creating a three-dimensional network. After they are heated and formed, these molecules cannot be re-heated and re-formed.

Comparing these types, thermoplastics are much easier to adapt to recycling.

Plastic identification; recycling code

When working with plastics there is often a need to identify which particular plastic material has been used for a given product. Most consumers recognize the types of plastics by the numerical coding system created by the Society of the Plastics Industry in the late 1980s. There are six different types of plastic resins that are commonly used to package household products. The identification codes listed below can be found on the bottom of most plastic packaging.

Recycled PET has many uses and well established market for this useful resin. By far, the largest usage is in textiles. Carpet companies can often use 100% recycled resin to manufacture polyesther carpets in a variety of colors and textures. PET is also spun like cotton candy to makr fiber filling for pillows, quilts and jackets. PET can also be rolled ito clear sheets or ribbon for VCR and audio cassettes. In addition a substantial quantity goes back into the bottle market.

HDPE High-Density Polyethylene - Milk, detergent & oil bottles, Toys and plastic bags. HDPE is called natural since that is it's natural color, and it is the most valuable because it can be made into any color when it is recycled. Other products are often packed in brightly colored bottles whiched are mixed together at recycling plants into mixed color or rainbow bales. Most of this material is later dyed black after it is processed.

Recycling HDPE is a pretty simple process. The bales are broken aprt and ground into small flakes. These flakes are then washed and floated to removed and heavy (Sinkable) contaminants. This cleaned flake is then dried in a stream of hot air and may be boxed and sold in that form. More sophisticated plastic plants may reheat these flakes, add pigment to change the color and run the material through a pelletizer. This equipment forms little beads of plastic that can then be reused in injection molding presses to create new products. Some end uses for recycled HDPE are plastic pipes,lumber, flower pots, trash cans, or formed back into non food application bottles.

V Vinyl/Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) - Food wrap, vegetable oil bottles, blister packages.

LDPE Low-Density Polyethylene - Many plastic bags. Shrink wrap, garment bags. It ic chemically similar to HDPE but it is less dense and more flexible. Most polyethylene film is made from LDPE which you often see as plastic bags and grocery sacks. This scrap may be clear or pigmented and it is hand sorted and baled at recycling processing

Recycling LDPE is verry similar to HDPE except special grinders are used to handle the thin films. The films are often washed and repelletized or used directly to make new products. Some end uses for recycled LDPE are plastic trash bags and grocery sacks, plastic tubing, agricultural film, and plastic lumber.

PP Polypropylene - Refrigerated containers, some bags, most bottle tops, some carpets, some food wrap.
PS Polystyrene - Throwaway utensils, meat packing, protective packing.
OTHER Usually layered or mixed plastic. No recycling potential - must be landfilled.

These symbols are meant to indicate the type of plastic, not its recyclability. Types 1 and 2 are commonly recycled. Type 4 is less commonly recycled. The other types are generally not recycled, except perhaps in small test programs. Common plastics polycarbonate (PC) and acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) do not have recycling numbers. Chemical engineers will say that there are many more types and uses for polymers. But most debate in recycling focuses on these seven categories.

Uncoded Plastics

Plastic consumer goods not identified by code numbers are not usually collected. Plastic tarps, pipes, toys, computer keyboards, and a multitude of other products simply do not fit into the numbering system that identifies plastics used in consumer containers. There are actually thousands of different varieties of plastic resins or mixtures of resins. These are developed to suit the needs of particular products. There is limited recycling of some of these specific plastic products in truckload quantities from industrial sources. No one has entered the business of collecting a variety of these plastics in small quantities.

The Problem with Plastics Recycling

When glass, paper and cans are recycled, they become similar products which can be used and recycled over and over again. With plastics recycling, however, there is usually only a single re-use. Most bottles and jugs don't become food and beverage containers again. For example, pop bottles might become carpet or stuffing for sleeping bags. Milk jugs are often made into plastic lumber, recycling bins, and toys.

A recent development has been the bottles-to-bottles recycling of "regenerated" pop bottles. Though it is technologically possible to make a 100% recycled bottle, there are serious economic questions. Also, some critics claim that the environmental impact of the regeneration process is quite high in terms of energy use and hazardous by-products.

Currently only about 3.5% of all plastics generated is recycled compared to 34% of paper, 22% of glass and 30% of metals. At this time, plastics recycling only minimally reduces the amount of virgin resources used to make plastics. Recycling papers, glass and metal, materials that are easily recycled more than once, saves far more energy and resources than are saved with plastics recycling.

Consider this example: polyvinyl chloride (PVC) bottles are hard to tell apart from PET bottles, but one stray PVC bottle in a melt of 10,000 PET bottles can ruin the entire batch. It's understandable why purchasers of recycled plastics want to make sure that the plastic is sorted properly. Equipment to sort plastics is being developed, but currently most recyclers are still sorting plastics by hand. That's expensive and time consuming. Plastics also are bulky and cumbersome to collect. In short, they take up a lot of space in recycling trucks.

A projection of post-consumer plastic waste is shown for different sectors in the year 2000.

The Problem with PVC

PVC is used for packaging and other short-life consumer products, furnishings and long-life goods, mostly construction material such as window frames and pipes. Short-life products, disposed of within a few years, have caused serious PVC waste problems, especially when incinerated. The average life span of the long life products is around 34 years. Long-life PVC goods produced and sold since the 1960s are now just starting to enter the waste stream. We are now only seeing the first stages of an impending PVC waste mountain.

There are currently over 150 million tonnes of long-life PVC materials in existence globally, used mostly in the construction sector, which will constitute this waste mountain in coming decades. Taking into account the ongoing growth in production, by the year 2005 this amount will double and the world will have to deal with approximately 300 million tonnes of PVC starting to enter the waste stream. The amount of PVC waste arising in industrialised countries is already expected to grow faster than PVC production. Of even more concern is the fact that the PVC industry is rapidly expanding in Latin America and Asia, so that eventually a growing waste mountain will be generated in these parts of the world.

In the late 1980s, PVC recycling was promoted by the vinyl industry in order to make PVC more acceptable to the public and to prevent government action to limit PVC production and use. As a result, the general public and decision-makers are now accepting recycling as a technical solution to the environmental problems associated with PVC. This is especially the case in countries with advanced recycling policies, like Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands and the USA.

Independent research shows that by the year 2005, it will only be possible to mechanically recycle 15-30% of PVC consumed, and at a very high cost. It is virtually impossible to separate, collect and recycle the remaining 70-85%. Thus for 70-85% of PVC waste, recycling is not even an option for the mid- to long-term. A major problem in the recycling of PVC is its high chlorine content of raw PVC - 56% of the polymer’s weight - and the high levels of hazardous additives added to the polymer to achieve the desired material quality. Additives may comprise up to 60% of a PVC product’s weight. Of all plastics, PVC uses the highest proportion of additives.

As a result, PVC requires separation from other plastics and sorting before mechanical recycling. PVC recycling is particularly problematic because of high separation and collection costs, loss of material quality after recycling, the low market price of PVC recyclate compared to virgin PVC and, therefore, the limited potential of recyclate in the existing PVC market. Feedstock recycling of PVC is hardly feasible at present, from an economic or an environmental perspective, and it is doubtful whether it will ever play a significant role in PVC waste management. The PVC industry seems to acknowledge that PVC recycling is no solution for PVC waste and it therefore is not surprising that industry is now lobbying for PVC incineration as a recovery option (for energy, hydrochloric acid and/or salt) in Western Europe and Japan and for landfilling in the USA and Australia. This forces local authorities to shoulder the burden of pollution and costs from PVC consumption.

Incineration is not a sustainable option for dealing with waste. Less energy is generated from burning the plastic than was used to make it, and incineration also means that the carbon contained within it is emitted as CO2 - a greenhouse gas. Toxic substances are also emitted, and large amounts of solid wastes are produced as slag, ash, filter residues and neutralisation salt residues. Part of this needs to be disposed of as hazardous waste.

Despite these concerns, PVC production is still increasing, especially in developing economies where PVC consumption is being encouraged. PVC waste is exported from the USA, Europe and Australia to developing countries, often for recycling into lower quality products such as shoes and low quality pipes, or ‘downcycling’. According to the Indonesian Environment Minister, up to 40% of the plastic waste imported into Indonesia is not recycled but directly disposed of, partly as hazardous waste. Downcycled products will eventually be dumped or burned since downcycling simply delays the inevitable need to dispose of PVC plastic waste. In light of the large volume of long-life PVC products due to become waste in the coming decades, and the projected increase in PVC production, it becomes apparent that an international PVC phase-out is urgently required. Only this will put a halt to a growing, dangerous and intractable waste problem.

Political frameworks for PVC phase-outs already exist. The North Sea Ministers Conference agreed in 1995 to stop environmental emissions of hazardous substances within one generation. According to the Swedish Chemical Committee, PVC has no place in a sustainable society and should be phased out for all uses by the year 2007. Denmark has proposed restrictions on the use of softeners, lead and other additives used in PVC plastic and is questioning the recycling potential claimed by the PVC industry. The Czech Republic agreed to phase-out production, imports and use of PVC packaging from 2001 onwards and Switzerland has banned PVC drinking bottles in 1991.

New Developments

Biodegradable polymers, By Dr P. J. Barham, University of Bristol

In Europe and Japan there are few sites left which can be used for landfill. Since the main bulk of domestic waste is made up of plastics there is a great deal of interest in recycling plastics and in producing plastic materials that can be safely and easily disposed of in the environment.

One option is to produce polymers that are truly biodegradable, and which may be used in the same applications as existing polymers. The requirements for such materials are that they may be processed through the melt state, that they are impervious to water, and that they retain their integrity during normal use but readily degrade in a biologically rich environment.

Polyhydroxyalkonates are a family of naturally occurring polyesters, produced in the form of carbon storage granules by many bacteria. Zeneca Bioproducts is currently producing these polymers on a pilot plant scale under the trade name BIOPOL ^TM. The Bristol Polymer group has been actively involved in the development of these polymers, especially in determining optimum processing conditions.

Solid-State Shear Pulverization: A New Technology for Plastics Recycling and Powder Production
At Polymer Technology Center (PTC), Department of Chemical Engineering,Northwestern University, a patented, breakthrough technology for plastics recycling has been developed that eliminates sorting by type or by color. This technology, called Solid State Shear Pulverization (S³P), is a continuous one-step process for recycling unsorted pre- or post-consumer plastic waste. Unlike conventional recycling, S³P produces uniform powders that can be used to make a variety of high-quality products.

S³P subjects polymers to high shear and high pressure while rapidly removing frictional heat from the process to prevent melting. S³P can convert multi-colored, unsorted (commingled) waste, industrial plastic scrap, and virgin resins to a uniform, light-colored, partially reactive powder of controlled particle size and particle size distribution. These powders are suitable for direct melt conversion by all existing plastic processing techniques. This energy-efficient process pulverizes it into powders of particle sizes ranging from coarse (10 mesh/2000microns) to very fine (635 mesh/20microns). The resulting powders can be used in a variety of consumer goods and special products. Non-food applications are seen throughout industry in everything from automotive and appliance parts to business equipment and furnishings. Samples made from either single polymers or from commingled mixtures with the S³P process often shows enhanced mechanical properties (e.g. elongation, tensile strength and flexural strength) as compared to samples which did not undergo the S3P process.

Near Infrared Spectroscopy
A. Fiber Optics for Absorption and Reflexion Measurements - Fraunhofer-Institut für, Chemische Technologie ICT

An integral recycling operation for mass consumer electronic and electric products has to be based on large scale disassembly processes. In order to reuse polymeric materials for high-class products and to minimize the amount of chemical waste, polymer identification and analysis of additives are required. Economic aspects demand fast response times (< 1 s), easy handling and integration in automated or at least semi-automated systems. As macroscopic physical methods, e.g. based on density measurements, are not sufficient to separate polymers, identification has to use methods monitoring structural or molecular properties of the plastic under investigation.

The near-infrared (NIR) spectral range allows to monitor structural or molecular properties of the plastic under investigation. At the Fraunhofer-Institute for Chemical Technology (ICT) the application of near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) for identification of polymers has been studied widely. The presented spectrometer system is based on fiber optics for absorption and reflexion measurements, an acoustooptic tunable filter (AOTF) and a transputer system. It is able to detect 1,000 spectra/s and to identify 20 pieces/s.

In the near-infrared (NIR) spectral range (700 to 2,500 nm) molecules absorb light by overtone or combination vibrations. Registration of spectra of bulky samples which are of practical interest in recycling processes is possible. C-H, O-H, N-H and C-O bands observed in NIR spectra are characteristic of polymers and enable identification of most commonly used materials.

At ICT a fast scanning AOTF-NIR-spectrometer has been developed for this purpose. Scan speed of the spectrometer can reach 1,000 nm/ms with a time delay of 0.01 ms between two spectral scans. More than 100 spectra can be stored. At lower scan speeds wavelength resolution reaches 2 to 3 nm. For identification two systems have been developed, used for identification of technical plastics in mass consumer products (cases of tools, electronic products etc.) and of plastics in household waste (bottles, cups etc.). Two detector heads were developed. One detector head has a fixed measuring plane and can be operated manually or automatically. The second detector head has an enlarged measuring plane and allows simultaneous observation of reflected and transmitted light of moving samples.

Results

Polymeric samples differ in structural composition of aromatic or aliphatic groups, as can be seen from the spectra. Plastics, especially when applied in mass consumer products, contain fillers, plasticizers, dyes and additives. These components, as well as processing and surface treatment strongly influence the spectra obtained from plastic materials. Especially carbon black absorbs all light and even small amounts (> 0.1 %) reduce NIR light reflexion or transmission to levels which are not sufficient for identification. Nevertheless identification of non-black polymers is almost always possible.

Parameters for Identification

The identification of plastics requires the wavelength range of 1,000 to 1,800 nm if the plastic materials are from a similar type of material like the references (e.g. household waste or glass fiber reinforced plastics of cases and parts from electronic products). Therefore, in this application, an uncooled Ge detector can be used.

In case of household waste mainly PE, PP, PET, PS and PVC are of interest. So, the range could be reduced to 1,600 to 1,800 nm. In electronic products ABS, PA, PP, PBT, PC and PMMA are found in larger quantities. N-H groups in PA require an extension of range to below 1,400 nm.

Household waste gives spectra of sufficient quality so that the range of 1,600 and 1,800 nm can be scanned in 1 ms or less. Glass fiber reinforced materials of technical products need longer scan times or spectra averaging.

samples (uncleaned, not black)	Household waste	Technical plastics
spectral range	1,600 - 1,800 nm	1,300 - 1,800 nm
scan speed	200 nm/ms	300 nm/ms
spectra averaged	1	200
spectra/identification	20 during moving	1
detector head	enlarged area	small fixed area
sample position	moving ca. 2 m/s	fixed

A statistical study of samples (not dyed black) from real uncleaned plastic waste showed that more than 95 % of the samples were identified. Labels, dyes and inscriptions on household waste did not disturb identification significantly. Erroneous identifications lay below 0.1 %.

B. Spectroscopic Infrared Focal Plane Array (FPA) - Applied Spectroscopy June 1997
A spectroscopic near-infrared imaging system, using a focal plane array (FPA) detector, is presented for remote and on-line measurements on a macroscopic scale. On-line spectroscopic imaging requires high-speed sensors and short image processing steps. Therefore, the use of a focal plane array detector in combination with fast chemometric software is investigated. As these new spectroscopic imaging systems generate so much data, multivariate statistical techniques are needed to extract the important information from the multidimensional pectroscopic images. These techniques include principal component analysis and (PCA) and linear discriminant analysis (LDA) for supervised classification of spectroscopic image data. Supervised classification is a tedious task in spectroscopic imaging, but a procedure is presented to facilitate this task and to provide more insight into and control over the composition of the datasets. The identification system is constructed, implemented, and tested for a real-world application of plastic
identification in municipal solid waste.

Polymer Crackin - Please see COGSYS

While old plastics can be re-cycled by melting and reforming into new uses, as volumes get larger, it gets harder and harder to find enough outlets. The solution is to break the plastics down, extract the valuable hydrocarbon portion and use this to make fresh plastics and other valuable feedstocks.

BP Chemicals in Grangemouth has a lead technology in this area which it calls Polymer Cracking. This has reached metal development rig stage with a throughput of 1 kg/hr with a 20 kg/hr unit for scale-up tests currently being commissioned. This will be followed by a 100 kg/hr unit with all the envisaged design features.

The plant is monitored using an integrated Real-Time Database (RTD) system developed by BP Chemicals themselves.

The requirement was for a sophisticated and flexible display system that could be easily augmented with intelligent rules, for assisting in the control of the process. It was important that the solution could be easily integrated into RTD.

As in any research and development environment, the plant may change several times during its lifetime, and this demands a large degree of flexibility in the operator interface. It was important that the system could be developed and maintained by technologists such as development chemists.

The requirement for rules or intelligence stems from the need to design a commercial plant that is robust and easy to operate so that the plant can be operated by non-specialist personnel. Full scale plants will be located with Polymer Production, Petrochemical Refineries or Recycling Complexes. In most cases, and especially the Recycling Complexes, in depth knowledge of the process is unlikely to be available on demand. This could have consequences in terms of the overall running of the plant, both in terms of maintaining efficiency and product quality, but perhaps more importantly in terms of diagnosing and rectifying problems.

How is plastic recycled?

In the United States 75 billion pounds of plastic are produced every year, unfortunately the majority of this plastic ends up in landfills. When plastic is dumped into landfills the decomposition process can take anywhere from 10 to 30 years. Recycling has therefore become a reasonable solution to the landfill problem.

There are five factors that are necessary in order for the recycling of plastic to be a successful process. First, the supply of used plastic has to be of a large quantity. This large quantity of plastic is collected at certain areas, which is the second step. Once the plastic is collected, the sorting and separating process begins; this is the third step in the process. The sorting and separating process depends upon the type of polymers that make up the plastic. Plastic products are given codes to help the sorting and separating process. The fourth step in plastic recycling is reprocessing. The reprocessing of polymers includes the melting process, the melting process can be accomplished if the polymers have not been widely cross-linked with any synthetics. If the cross-linking of polymers contain too many synthetics, the polymers will be difficult to stretch and less pliable. The final step is the manufacturing of the melted plastic into new products.

The codes on plastic recyclable containers are what help most in the sorting and separating process. The six categories of plastics are separated into two areas: polyethelyne plastics and polymer plastics. The polyethelyne plastics are labeled HDPE, for high density polyethelyne; or LDPE, for low density polyethelyne. The four polymer plastics that are recycled include polyvinyl chloride, labeled V; polystyrene, labeled PS; polypropylene, labeled PP; and polyethylene terephthalate, labeled PETE. These names and labels can seem confusing, but they are a necessity in the recycling process.

There are four types of recycling processes that usually occur: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. The primary recycling process is recycling materials and products that contain similar features of the original product. This process is only feasible with semi-clean industrial scrap plastics, therefore this process is not widely used. Secondary recycling allows for a higher mixture of combination levels in plastics. When the secondary process of recycling is used it creates products such as fenceposts and any products that can be used in the substitution of wood, concrete, and metal. The low mechanical properties of these types of plastics are the reason why the above products are created. Tertiary recycling is occurring more and more today because of the need to adapt to the high levels of waste contamination. The actual process involves producing basic chemicals and fuels from plastic. The last form of recycling is the quarternary process. This quarternary process uses the energy from plastic by burning. This process is the most common and widely used in recycling. The reason this process is widely used is because of the high heat content of most plastics. Most incinerators used in the process can reach temperatures as high as 900 to 1000 degrees Celsius. For the sake of the environment the new techniques being used with the incinerators have decreased the amount of air pollutants being released.

The use of incineration in the quarternary process is most beneficial because through the high temperature heating process the incoming waste is reduced by 80% in weight and 90% in volume. The materials left over form this process are then placed in landfills.

Why Worry About Recycling Plastics?

A current promotional program sponsored by the plastics industry emphasizes the positive contributions that plastics make. And claims listed in those advertisements are accurate.

But as shown in the article on the preceding page, the largest single use for plastics is packaging. Because packaging has a short lifespan, it makes up a large portion of the plastics waste stream. But where does that “waste stream” lead?

In general, the Environmental Protection Agency says that in the early 1990s about 80 percent of all municipal solid waste was sent to landfills, 10 percent was incinerated and 10 percent was recycled. While more and more plastic is being recycled, the EPA estimates that plastics make up about 20 percent of the solid waste that is landfilled.

Most consumers think that the slow degradation of plastics is the primary reason that plastics should be recycled. However, research has shown that other waste, such as paper, wood and food wastes, also degrade very slowly in landfills.

The more serious problem with plastic waste concerns the additives contained in plastics. These additives include colorants, stabilizers and plasticizers that may include toxic components such as lead and cadmium. Studies indicate that plastics contribute 28 percent of all cadmium in municipal solid waste and about 2 percent of all lead. Researchers don’t know whether these and other plastic additives contribute significantly to products leached from municipal landfills.

How toxic are plastics that are burned? Researchers don’t know that, either. Plastics that contain heavy-metal-based additives may also contribute to the metal content of incinerator ash. The EPA is looking for substitutes for lead- and cadmium-based additives.

One additional concern relates to use of petroleum products. All plastics began their lives as petroleum. By increasing plastics recycling, scientists and engineers are able to reduce dependence on petroleum.

First Things First: Sorting

Before plastic waste can be converted into new products, the various types of plastics must be separated. Initially plastic reclamation companies relied on manual sorting — either by consumers themselves or by paid workers — but manual sorting is considered too unreliable and too expensive.

At least two organizations have developed systems for automated plastics sorting. National Recovery Technologies received the EPA’s Small Business of the Year National Award in 1991 for its efforts in developing and marketing a high-speed, automated system that efficiently separates vinyl containers (those marked #3) from mixtures of whole or crushed post-consumer plastic containers. NRT says that the presence of chlorine atoms within vinyl resins triggers a computer-timed air burst that separates vinyl containers from the mixed plastic stream. The company also developed a system that optically scans mixed plastics to separate PET soda bottles from HDPE milk jugs, green PET
from clear PET, as well as other specifications.

Sandia National Laboratories, which works with the U.S. Department of Energy, has designed a device to classify plastic waste into one of the seven plastics categories. Near-infrared light is used to distinguish one plastic from another using the vibrational characteristics unique to each. Sandia engineers report that the device can classify many types of plastics with a success rate of 98 to 100 percent. The laboratory has issued a license for commercial development of this new device.

Old ABS Phone Housings Recycled Into Innovative Mounting Panels

Seeking new uses for recycled plastic from old telephones, AT&T Bell Laboratories engineers are remolding discarded phone housings into mounting panels for AT&T’s business telephone systems and improving service to business customers as well.

“Until now, when a telephone reached the end of its life, AT&T would sell the plastic to a recycler who would grind it up and resell it into the secondary market, where it was made into products ranging from tape cassettes to park benches,” said Werner Glantschnig, a member of Bell Laboratories technical staff and the project’s leader.

“However, we wanted to see if we could close the loop ourselves and re-use these millions of pounds of ‘ABS plastic flake’ in a way that makes both environmental and business sense.”

ABS — or acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene — plastic flake can’t be made into new telephones because colors change during re-melting, and the plastic loses the smooth, glossy finish AT&T requires for its phone housings.

“When we mold the ABS into telephone system mounting panels, the colors disperse nicely into a uniform gray and the finished product meets all of our requirements,” said Louis D’Anjou, another Bell Laboratories engineer and the panel’s designer.

With these ABS panels, AT&T’s supply centers can now assemble and test business telephone systems before delivery to the customer’s premises. Previously, these panels had to be custom-made from plywood and the system assembled and tested at the customer’s location. In addition to reducing the use of wood, the new method is far more efficient, reducing both the time and cost of installation.

AT&T engineers and designers are looking into other possible uses for the ABS plastic flake, including spools for copper and fiber optic telephone cables.

“This is encouraging evidence that environmental awareness and the concept of ‘design for environment’ are spreading through the AT&T design community,” said John C. Borum, AT&T environment and safety engineering vice president. “Our goal is to remain in the vanguard of environmentally responsible corporations by recycling as many of our products as we can.”

Junk Car Seats Lead To New Technology

Throughout the environmental movement, researchers are concerned with products that are discarded in large quantities. Junk cars are one such product. But junk cars pose unique problems because of the combination of products used in automaking. Used metals from junk cars have long been recycled, and now many researchers are turning their attention to other auto components.

The Center for Excellence in Polymer Science and Engineering at the Illinois Institute of Technology has focused one project on the 400 million pounds of polyurethane foam scrapped each year from junk cars. IIT has patented a solid state sheer extrusion process and apparatus that could be used to recycle that waste, along with a broad range of other polymer wastes and rubbers.

IIT’s system, known by the acronym SSSE, pulverizes polymeric material, producing fine powders that have numerous applications for industry. The advantage of SSSE is that it can be applied economically to many types of natural and synthetic polymer wastes. The Center for Excellence in Polymer Science and Engineering points out that many recycling processes developed to date have been limited to certain types of waste. Most processes have not been economical, especially in the amount of energy needed, they add, and the reclaimed materials have not been produced in forms that are needed and usable for re-manufacturing.

The SSSE technology has been optioned to a New York firm for possible development. More information is available through IIT’s Office of Public Relations, (312) 567-3104, or at IIT’s web site, www.iit.edu.

Research Into Chemical Recycling Could Open New Opportunities

The U.S. Department of Energy conducts on-going research on plastics recycling. This report highlights new approaches to chemical recycling. Recycling of plastics can be costly and difficult because of constraints on waste contamination and inadequate separation prior to recycling. Chemical recycling could remove some of those restraints.

Pyrolysis and hydrolysis are two processes that have shown promise in the recovery of basic chemicals and fuels from waste plastics. Pyrolysis is a process in which plastic wastes are heated in the absence of oxygen in a closed chamber. The products of pyrolysis may be used as a chemical feedstock or fuel. Hydrolysis decomposes plastic wastes through a series of chemical reactions.

Research sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Industrial Technologies at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory has led to the development of a new process based on the pyrolysis of certain waste streams. This process retrieves monomers, the basic building blocks of a polymer, and high-value chemicals that are sufficiently pure to use in making new plastics. The advantage of this process is that the waste plastics do not have to be separated ahead of time, thereby eliminating a labor-intensive step in current processes. It also will reduce the cost of the monomers and chemicals and will reduce consumption of petroleum, the source of chemical feedstocks used to produce plastics.

In the new process, monomers and high-value chemicals are retrieved from manufacturing or post-consumer wastes through sequential pyrolysis. The reaction products undergo detailed chemical analysis to determine conditions that allow control of pyrolysis reactions. This allows the design of a process to collect the desired products in high yields, reducing requirements for subsequent separation and purification of the target product. NREL has filed patent applications to cover the process for a total of seven mixed plastic waste streams.

For example, NREL has demonstrated the new process of waste carpet recycling. Caprolactam, the valuable monomer of Nylon 6 used in about half of all carpet fibers, can be isolated with yields of 85 percent. This can be done without separating the nylon from the backing material.

An economic evaluation of recycling caprolactam performed by an independent economic firm shows the applications to be promising. Those findings project that a commercial-size plant recycling 100 million pounds of waste carpet could produce high-grade caprolactam for about 15-50 cents per pound. The chemical currently sells for 90 cents to $1 per pound. In other words, recycling caprolactam could reduce its cost by 50 percent or more.

Other applications of the chemical recycling process include recovering terephthalic acid from polyethylene terephthalate, or PET, in mixed plastic bottles and recovering styrene from mixed residential plastics. PET recycling does not have as favorable economics as the polyurethane application because of the lower value of plastic bottles but the potential volume of the waste stream is very large. Researchers estimate that 900 million pounds of thermoplastic polyester resin, of which PET is a major component, could be recycled each year.

Researchers are expanding the technology base for the chemical recycling process and are identifying new, promising applications for specific waste streams. Experiments are currently underway using engineering-scale reactors to confirm process reactions and to refine operating conditions.

Do-It-Yourself Plastic: Gloop

Here’s a simple activity to share with students to help them understand some characteristics of plastics and other polymers. It was developed for the Sandia National Laboratory “Science and Math Carnival.” This activity is suggested for students in third through eighth grade.

Gluep is a polymer made from borax (sodium tetraborate) and white glue. Each of these materials is a polymer already. Glue is a mixture of polyvinyl acetate and polyvinyl alcohol. Borax forms long borate chains in an aqueous solution. When the two materials are mixed together and the mixture is kneaded by hand, crosslinking of the polymer chains occurs as a result of hydrogen bonding with water molecules which links the two polymer chains. The physical properties of the mixture are quite different from the properties of the individual compounds. The resulting Gluep is a semi-solid plastic-like material.

Materials

4 percent borax solution (1/4 cup of borax dissolved in 1 quart of tap water)
White glue mixture (50:50 mixture of glue and water, mixed well)
Food coloring
Ziploc plastic bags

Procedure

1. Pour 15 ml (1 tablespoon) of the borax solution into the bag.
2. Add three drops of food coloring.
3. Add 60 ml (4 tablespoons) of the white glue mixture.
4. Zip the plastic bag tight.
5. Knead thoroughly until the color is uniform and water is no longer visible. Consistency should be reached within 10 minutes.
6. Remove Gluep from the bag by turning the bag inside out and rubbing the Gluep from the sides.
7. Store the Gluep in the plastic bag.

Questions

How is Gluep like a solid? Like a liquid? What happens if you leave Gluep out of the bag? What happens if you freeze it?

Extension

Try other experiments with the Gluep. What happens when extra borax solution is added? What happens when extra glue is added? What happens if a base or acid is added during mixing? After the Gluep has hardened?

For a complete lesson plan for this activity, visit Sandia’s web site at www.ca.sandia.gov/outreach /htm/gluep.html.

Recycled Facts

The PET bottle — the bottle consumers know as #1 soda bottles — was patented in 1973 by chemist Nathaniel Wyeth, brother of distinguished American painter Andrew Wyeth.

The first PET bottle was recycled in 1977.

The average household generates about 17 pounds of used PET bottles each year. That is equal to the amount of used aluminum.

Eight two-liter bottles equals about a pound of PET.

When PET bottles are crushed and tied into 48-inch bales, one bale can hold about 4,800 bottles and weighs about 1,200 pounds.

How is PET recycled?

Five PET bottles yield enough fiber for one extra-large T-shirt or one square foot of carpet. (Half of all polyester carpet manufactured in the United States is made from recycled plastic bottles.)

Twenty-five two-liter bottles can make one sweater.

Five two-liter PET bottles yield enough fiberfill for a ski jacket.

It takes 35 two-liter PET bottles to make enough fiberfill for a sleeping bag.

Used milk jugs (#2 HDPE) become:

Lumber substitutes (like those green plastic park benches)
Base cups for soda bottles
Flower pots
Pipe
Toys, pails and drums
Traffic barrier cones
Trash cans

The American Plastics Council reports that consumers recycled almost half of all PET soda bottles produced in 1994. About one-quarter of all milk jugs were recycled.

Recycling: The Next Generation?

No one can predict what the next generation of recycling research and engineering will bring. Young engineers — really young engineers — are already contemplating the question. If this report from eighth-grader Nick Gidzak of Polar Bay, Manitoba, Canada, is any indication, the sky’s the limit.

Recycling Plastics and Mixing It With Cement to Make Bricks

This year, I entered my school science fair and got a silver medal for this project. I went to the divisional science fair and got a gold medal and the engineering award. When I went to the Manitoba Schools Science Symposium, I got an outstanding project award by the Professional Engineering Society of Manitoba.

For my project, I cut up plastic milk cartons and plastic two-liter pop containers and mixed this with cement to make bricks. I made three bricks with different amounts of plastic mixed with cement. The first brick was made with the most plastic. The second had half as much. The last brick had no plastic.

After I made the bricks, I left them outside for four months. It snowed, rained and was sunny. After four months, I brought them inside. I then pumped water over the bricks for two weeks. The water wore away the bricks and show how much erosion effect it did. The results were that the brick with the most plastic mixed in showed the least amount of erosion.

European Union Legislation - April 14, 1998

A European Union legislative target to recycle a minimum of 15 percent of plastic packaging waste by 2001 is close to being achieved, judging by the latest annual figures released by the Association of Plastic Manufacturers in Europe (APME).

The recycling rate for plastics packaging in the European Union (EU) rose from 14 percent in 1995 to 14.7 percent in 1996 as a proportion of the total plastics packaging waste generated, while the proportion of the waste incinerated - with energy recovery - dropped from 18 to 16 percent. The total amount of plastic packaging waste generated in Europe during this period increased.

Under a 1994 EU directive on packaging, member states are required to recover at least 50 percent and recycle at least 25 percent of all packaging waste by mid-2001. A minimum of 15 percent recycling for each packaging material must also be achieved.

EU member states have already begun considering the next set of targets under the directive although the European Commission is not expected to produce proposals before the end of the year. According to industry sources, some member states have already indicated that they want the target raised to a minimum 25 percent recycling rate for each packaging material. Other governments are reported to be opposed to setting new targets until data on the recovery and recycling of packaging waste are improved.

A prominent packaging industry spokesman last month called on governments to postpone discussionof post-2000 targets under the packaging directive until better data is available. Julian Carroll, director of the Brussels-based packaging organisation, Europen, said the packaging directive was in "danger of failing" because of a lack of understanding of the industry.

APME's figures also show that total plastics waste rose 5 percent from 16.05 million tonnes in 1995 to 16.87 million tonnes in 1996. While the material recycling rate rose for the third year running, from 8 to 9 percent, the proportion incinerated with energy recovery fell slightly from 17 to 15 percent. The overall recovery rate dropped from 26 to 24.5 percent. Austria recorded the highest rate for mechanical recycling of 20 percent, followed by Germany with 15 percent.

Feedstock recycling of plastics, where materials are broken down chemically and thermally into their constituent molecules and reprocessed, increased by 150 percent from 99,000 tonnes to 251,000 tonnes.

Reuse Everything! Nearly Everything we Buy and Consume can be Reused.

2009-12-20T06:10:00.000-08:00

Here's some ways to reuse simple household things...

1. Reuse your blankets and towels. Bring them to a local shelter that will be glad to put them to good use and give animals a soft, warm place to sit.

2. Reuse seeds from fruit and vegetables and try to grow them!

3. Reuse old plastic bags. There are 10 creative ways to reuse plastic bags here.

4. Reuse paper bags as school book covers, or be a little more creative with these ideas.

5. Cut used pieces of paper into scrap pieces of paper (a message pad!).

6. Reuse stove heat by opening up the stove once you are done with it and letting the warm air into your home in colder weather. Reuse the heat!

7. Reuse coffee grinds by keeping them aside and placing them into your garden or soil.

8. Reuse coffee that you don't drink by putting it over ice and placing it in the fridge for an iced coffee later.

9. Reuse Christmas trees (not the fake ones) by putting them outside for birds and letting it naturally break down.

10. Reuse packing peanuts, air pillows, bubble wrap and boxes for your own ebay shipping, or bring them by the local post office or recycling center for others to use.

11. Reuse pens and art supplies by donating them to local schools.

12. Reuse your old carpet. Even slightly dirty carpets can have a second life.

13. Reuse your old food scraps by composting them.

14. Reuse your used margarine and butter tubs by cleaning them and keeping them for leftovers (free ziploc containers!).

15. Reuse old clothing by donating it to a local charity.

16. Reuse the stuffing from old pillows and comforters into new items. Reuse the pillow covers for rags.

17. Reuse used wrapping paper and save it for next year.

18. Reuse newspaper, interesting magazines, and other paper products by using them as wrapping paper.

19. Reuse kiddie pool water on plants and shrubs.

20. Reuse your old paint by finding things to paint in your home, touch up, or donate it to a local charity.

21. Reuse your old toilet paper rolls.

22. Reuse old wallpaper and turn it into one of a_willow's suggestions!

23. Never throw away an old book, donate it to a library or to your recycling center, or a school! They can reuse it.

24. Reuse old curtains as rags for cleaning your car.

25. Reuse your old electronics by selling them on Craigslist or on eBay.

26. Reuse old glass containers with lids and save them for leftovers, or, make your own jam or jelly. Food safe airtight glass containers would be great for storing rice, pasta, sugar and flour.

27. Reuse your old sneakers by donating them to Nike's Shoe recycling program (okay, this is more recycling, but it's important!)

28. Reuse greeting cards.

29. Reuse your old toothbrush and use it to clean hard to reach areas like around the sink, your drains, faucets and grout.

30. Save stale bread and give it to the birds in the backyard (be sure to rip it small enough so they can eat it!).

31. Make a piece of artwork with your old metal cans.

32. Make your own checker set by reusing your old bottle caps.

33. There are over 20 ways to reuse your old furniture here.

34. Sell or donate your old cellphone to the one of many companies out there.

35. Sell old clothing and let others reuse it, provided it looks good still.

36. For your next home renovation project, you might be able to reuse your old floor tiles.

37. Reuse popsicle sticks with these ingenius, crafty ideas.

38. Even bicycle tires can be reused.

39. Reuse old seafood seashells by crushing them and using them in your garden as decoration.

40. There are at least five ways you can reuse your old drinking straws.

41. Reuse insulation when building a home, or adding insulation. This will save energy and money!

42. There are some creative things you can do with old metal pie pan plates.

43. Reuse old aluminum foil by judging whether you it is clean enough to use again. If you're using it for bread or dry goods, you should be able to shake it off and set it aside for next time (provided it is clean).

44. Reuse old spray bottles by first making sure they are okay to reuse (see the back of the bottle) and filling them with water to spray plants.

45. Reuse your old CDs and DVDs with these tips.

46. Reuse your old yard debris! Leaves, lawn cuttings, and wood chips naturally fertilize and add nutrients to your soil.

47. If you receive a gift in a gift bag, save it for another occasion and reuse that bag!

48. Is your old keyboard the perfect seedling starter?

49. Reuse your old toothpaste tubes.

50. Yes, you can even reuse your mattress.

Reduce your Carbon Footprint and Start Recycling Everything in your Life!

2009-12-20T06:05:00.000-08:00

Here's a list of things that you can start recycling today...

1. Old bricks, worthless? No, those bricks can be recycled, and are very valuable to some people!

2. Use reclaimed wood for your next project at home. Use your own, or find some on freecycle, Craigslist, at your local transfer station, or recycle.net.

3. There are many places you can exchange or recylce your old electronics.

4. Sell off or post an ad for free metal scrap to be recycled.

5. If you have enough, your old VHS tapes can be recycled

6. Packing tape and stickers cannot be recycled, so use these sparingly in the first place.

7. Tools are very valuable items on eBay. Try selling them in lots to save time, shipping waste, and energy.

8. Empty propane tanks may be able to be taken as scrap metal, or properly disposed of at hazardous waste facilities. Reuse these whenever you can!

9. Even large items like BBQ grills can be recycled as scrap metal once the propane tank has been removed.

10. Kids toys have a new life when they're donated to thrift stores like Salvation Army or local churches.

11. Recycle your old prescription bottles, they have a million uses.

12. After they've been used up, recycle your old batteries.

13. How about other plastic numbers, what do those mean? You may be able to recycle some of them.

14. Flip flops can be recycled and repurposed a number of creative and unique ways.

15. Can't figure out what to do with your old lamps, wall decor, or knick knacks? If you can't eBay them, donate them to a thrift store for charity purposes. Craigslist and Kijiji are good alternatives, too.

16. Recycle your shipping styrofoam or reuse it.

17. Window treatments have the chance to live again as you recycle your curtains into pillows.

18. Carpet can be recycled if it is clean and usable.

19. Donate it, sell it, or recycle your television.

20. Stop by an Aveda location to recycle your bottle caps.

21. The rumor has been floating around that aluminum can't be recycled. While the rules may differ per town, you can still reuse it a few times by giving it a cleaning.

22. Reuse your old jeans in these 25 ingenious methods.

23. Why trash it? Your shower curtain is a great drop cloth or apron.

24. Your ink cartridges are accepted at many different locations online and in person, like Staples.

25. You might be able to trade in your old printer for a credit on a new one. They'll recycle it for you. There's always earth911, too.

26. Tires are a must to be recycled, and it's very easy.

27. Learn how you can recycle your roof shingles to become part of our roads.

28. Make sure when installing a new car battery that the mechanic will recycle it.batteries

29. Cardboard boxes can be taken at your local recycling station, or sent curbside if they're small enough in most instances.

30. Save your old packing peanuts and recycle them by giving them to your local shipping company. They will gladly take them off your hands.

31. Your gently used clothing can be resold on eBay, or donated.

32. Good news! #5 plastics can be recycled at many Whole Foods locations.

33. Potato chip bags and those other foil packaging that often are used to wrap up junk food can be recycled at Terracycle.net.

34. Used (many times) ziploc containers and similar disposable plasticware can be recycled usually as #1 plastics.

35. Shaving cream metal cans are accepted in most recycling facilities with other metal cans.

36. Can tabs can be recycled with your cans. Don't pull them off, that kidney dialysis machine time rumor is false.

37. You couldn't have enough options to recyle your cellphone

38. Blankets can be recycled by donating them to animal shelters (if clean).

39. Recycle your own scrap wood and furniture by reusing it, or donate it.

40. Save that box and make some Pizza box art, or maybe just recycle it if you follow these instructions.

41. Mattresses, aerosol cans, even washing machines can be recycled.

42. Bread twist ties will be your new best friend after you read these creative uses.

43. Reading glasses can be recycled and donated, and are always in demand.

44. Old books can be sold on Amazon, or donated to thrift stores. There's always the yard sale option, too.

45. Freecycle your old sports equipment.

46. Did you know your old aluminum siding could be worth a lot of money?

47. Your old greeting cards can even be recycled creatively.

48. Wrapping paper is just paper and has many ways to be reused or recycled.

49. Don't forget all types of glass bottles can be recycled -- wine bottles, jelly jars, colored glass... these are all accepted at most recycling facilities.

50. Your old screened doors have many ways that they can be recycled.